emeronTI1

lkçN³TUeTAénesdækic©

I- esckþIepþIm

esdækic©CaviTüasaRsþEdlsikSaBIcriklkçN³rbs;mnusSkñúgTMnak;TMngrvagkarcg;)anKµanRBMEdn nig FnFanmankMrit EdlmanCMerIseRbIR)as;epSgeTot.

esdækic©KWCakarsikSa faetI buKÁl nig sgÁmeRCIserIsedIm,IeRbIR)as;FnFankMr EdlFmµCati nig mnusSCMnan;mun)anpþl;eGayy:agdUcemþc.

esdækic© CaviTüasaRsþsgÁm EdlsikSaBIkarEbgEcknUvral;FnFanTaMgGs; edIm,Iplitkmµ RTBü nig esvakmµ sRmab;bMeBjesckþIRtÚvkarKµanRBMEdnénGñkeRbIR)as;.

-edaysarvaCaviTüasaRsþsgÁm KWesdækic©viTüa k¾dUcCasgÁmviTüa b¤ viTüasaRsþneya)ayEdr KW vasikSanUvral;TMnak;TMngénbuKÁlral;TMnak;TMngénbuKÁlTaMgGs;kñúgsgÁm. b:uEnþvaxusEbøkBIviTüasaRsþ d¾éTeTot KW esdækic©viTüa vasßitelIEpñkmYyénsgÁmEdlehAfa exOnesdækic©³ CaRbB½n§plitkmµ EbgEck nig kareRbIR)as;RTBü nig esvakmµ.

II- RbPBbBaðarbs;esdækic©

1- FnFanmankMrit nigFnFanesrI

FnFan KWCasMPar³EdlmanenAkñúgexOnesdækic©EdleRbIsRmab;plitkmµTMnij nig esvakmµ.

FnFanmankMrit nigFnFanesdækic© ³ KWCaFnFan b¤RTBüEdlbrimaNmanrbs;vaticCag karR)afñaeRbIR)as;va .

]TahrN_³ sisScUleronkMuBüÚT½r mancMnYneRcInCagkarkMuBüÚT½rEdlman. kñúgkrNIenH cMnYnkuMBüÚT½rCaTMnijesdækic©.

FnFanesrI³ KWCaFnFan b¤ RTBüEdlbrimaNrbs;vaelIsBIkarR)afñacg;eRbIR)as;va.

]TahrN_³ xül;sRmab;dkdegðIm BnøWRBHGaTitü >>>.

Ü qøgkat;eBlevlaRTBüesrIGacERbeTACaRTBüesdækic© b¤ FnFankMr)an.

2- PaBkMr nig CMerIs

bBaðasMxan;EdlsgÁmCatinimYy²EtgCYbRbTH KW PaBkMr Edlmann½yfa CasßanPaBEdlminman FnFanRKb;RKan;edIm,IbMeBjkarcg;)anrbs;mnusS b¤ CalkçNÐEdlekIteLIg edaysarsgÁmCatiBuMman FnFanRKb;RKan; edIm,IplitnUvRKb;vtßúEdlmnusSmñak;²cg;)an. PaBkMrenHsßitenAelIKMnitBIr³ 1/ karcg; )anKµanRBMEdn , 2/ FnFanmankMrit EdlnaMdl;RBMEdnsmtßPaBkñúgkarplit.

CMerIs KWCaskmµPaBénkareRCIserIsrvagvtßúEdlGaceRCIserIs)an BIr b¤ eRcIn. edaysar PaBkMrenHGñkeRbIR)as; shRKas nig rdæRtÚvEtmankareRCIserIs.

¯kareRCIserIsrbs;GñkeRbIR)as; RbsinebIeyIgminGacmanRKb;GVIEdleyIgcg;)an

enaHeT eyIgRtUvEtmankareRCIserIsnUvGVIEdleyIgcg;)anbMput. eyIgEtgeFVIkareRCIserIs faetI eyIg RtUveRbIR)as;luykñúgédy:agNa? RbsinebIGñkcMNaysRmab;Es,keCIgmYyKUr EdlGñkcg;)anCageK GVI eTotEdlGñkcg;)anEdrenaHRtUvEtlHbg;ecal.

¯kareRCIserIsrbs;shRKas shRKask¾RbQmnigPaBkMrenHEdr. ebIsinKat; seRmccitþ plitGVImYy Kat;nwgGaclHbg;kñúgkarplitGVIepSgeTot eRBaHktþþaplitkmµmanmin RKb;RKan;. ehIykarseRmccitþrbs;Kat;k¾dUcCakarseRmccitþrbs;GñkeRbIR)as;Edr etImYyNaEdlRtUv plitmun ehIyGVIEdlRtUvpliteRkay EdlenHsMedAEteTAelIplitplEdlmanRbPBdUcKñaenaHeT eRBaHfa plitkmµ EdleyIgmanenAkñúgédrbs;eyIg minGacplit)anplitplTaMgRKb;RbePTenaHeT. ]TahrN_eyIgman eQIsRmab;Etkarplit tu cMnYn100 rW sRmab;TU50. ebIeyIgplittu eyIgRtUve)aHbg;karplitTU. ebIsinCa y:agenHeyIgRtUvmankareRCIserIsmYy EdlsmRsbsRmab; plRbeyaCn_rbs;eyIg.

¯rdæaPi)al rdæaPi)alk¾dUcenaHEdr. karcMNayrbs;rdæmanPaBTUlMTUlayNas; EdlmanmuxRBYjCaeRcInEdlRtUvRbQmmux dUcCakarcMNayeTAelIehdæarcnsm<½n§ pøÚvfñl; eTAelIkar karBarCati suxsniþPaBsgÁm eTAelIkarEfrkSasuxPaBsaFarN³ karRKb;RKgbrisßaneGay)anRbesIr eTAelIkarGb;rM nigeTAelIkarvinieyaKsaFarN³epSg²eTot. CamYynigfvikarCatimankMritkMNt; kar eRCIserIsrvag GVIEdlRtUveFVI EdlCakarcaM)ac; cg;)anrbs;RbCaCn RtUvEtman. etIkñúgsßanPaBNaEdl eyIgRtUvsagsg;GVI? ehIyRtUveFVIGVImun enAkEnøgNabnÞab; nigkEnøgNaeRkayeK. etIRtUvsagsg;sala eroneGay)aneRcIn b¤ kartMelIgR)ak;eborvtS rbs;mRnþIraCkareGay)ansmrmü?

karcg;)anKµanRBMEdn

FnFanmankMrit

CMerIs

PaBkMr

plitGVI?

plity:agdUcemþc?

sRmab;GñkNa?

3- tMélkalanuvtþþPaB nig RBdnlT§PaBplitkmµ

FnFanmankMNt;karplitrbs;eyIgRtUvmankareRCIserIs rvagplitplBIr b¤ eRcIn EdleyIg RtUvseRmccitþþplitenaH. kalNaeyIgplitmYyRtUve)aHbg;ecalmYy b¤ ebIeyIgplitmYyeRcIn RtUv plitmYyeTottic. EdlenHehIyeyIgehAfa RBMEdnsmßPaBénplitkmµ EdlCaKMrUmYyEdlman RbCaRbiyPaB kñúgkarqøúHbBa©aMgBI tMélkalanuvtþþþPaB. ExSRBMEdnplitkmµ KWCaExSekagCMerIs tageGayFatupSMénTMnijBIrEdleKGacplit)anCamYynwgbrimaN nig KuNPaB FnFan nig bec©kviTüa mankMNt;mYy.

CMerIs	brimaN X	brimaN Y
A B C D E	0 250 500 750 1,000	4,000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0

250

500

750

1000

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

A (0 : 4,000)

B (250 : 3,000)

C (500 : 2,000)

D (750 : 1,000)

F (1000 : 0)

eyIg]bmafa kñúgexOnesdækic©TaMgmUleRbIR)as;FnFanEdlxøÜnmanplitTMnijEtBIrmux X nig Y Edlbgðajtamry³taragxagelI. cMENkkñúgrUbxagelIG½kSQr tMNageGaybrimaNTMnij Y EdlexOnesdækic©Gacplit)ankñúgry³eBl1Ex² ehIyG½kSedktagedaybrimaNén X . enARtg; cMNuc A bgðajfa exOnesdækic©eRbIR)as;ral;FnFanTaMgGs;edIm,IplitEtTMnij Y ehIycMENkcMNuc F bgðajnUvkarplitEtTMnij X . karpSMplitTMnij X nig Y nimYy²Edl)anbgðajkñúg taragRtUv)an BiBN’NnaedayRkahV Edlman 6cMnuc ( A eTA B) Edl)anKUsP¢ab;begáIt)anCabnÞat;mYy. bnÞat;enH ehAfa ExSRBMEdnplitkmµ.

¯tMélkalanuvtþPaB³ tMélkalanuvtþPaBénskmµPaBmYy KWCatMélénCMerIs d¾ l¥ bMput mYyeTot EdleyIgRtUvEte)aHbg;ecaledIm,Icab;ykskmµPaBenaH. enARtg;cMnuc B KWplit TMnij X )an250Ékta nigY )an3 000 Ékta. etIvaeTACay:agNavij RbsinebIeKseRmccitþplit X bEnßm eTot. CacMelIy KWexOnesdækic©RtUvbþÚrTisedAénFnFan ¬Blkmµ mUlFn>>>>>¦ mYycMnYnBIkarplitTMnij Y edIm,Iykmkplit X bEnßm.

]bmafa exOnesdækic©seRmcplitenARtg;cMnuc C vij eyIgeXIjfakarplit X ekIneLIg 250 Ékta ¬BI 250 eTA 500¦ ehIycMENkÉTMnij Y vijfycuH1000Ékta ¬BI3000 mk 2000¦. eKfaexOnesdækic©kMBugplitbEnßm X cMnYn250Ékta enARtg;karcMNayplitplY 1000 Ékta. dUecñHral;4Ékta²énTMnij Y EdllHbg;ecalKWexOnesdækic©TTYl)an X cMnYn1Éktamkvij. enAral;1ÉktaénTMnij X KWexOnesdækic©cMNayesµInwg 4Éktaén Y EdlenHvaBnül;KMnitsþIGMBItMél kalanuvtþPaB.

4- sMnYrmUldæanTaMgbIrbs;esdækic©

plitGVI³ KWRtUvplitrbs;GVI EdleKRtUvkar EdleKR)afñacg;)an. etIeyIgKYrciBa©wmRCUk

lk;sac;kñúgRbeTsEdlkan;sasna Gisøam rWeT?

plity:agdUcemþc? plity:agNaedIm,IFanaeGay)annUvR)ak;cMeNj. ehtuGVI)anCaenA RbeTs)araMgeKRbmUlplTMBaM)ayCUUredayéd minRbmUlpledaym:asuInFM² dUcenAkñúgRbeTsGaemrik b¤k¾ RbeTs GURsþalI?

plitsRmab;GñkNa? KWplitsRmab;GñkEdlmancMNUl. CaFmµtaeyIgplitrbs;GVImYy KW edIm,IykeTAlk;? etIGñkNaEdlmanlT§PaBTijrbs;EdleyIgplit)an?

5- karENnaMGMBI mIRkUesdækic© nig m:aRkUesdækic©

¯m:aRkUesdækic©³ KWCakarsikSaénesdækic©rbs;RbeTs nig esdækic©BiPBelak.

¯mIRkUesdækic©³ KWCakarsikSaénkarseRmccitþ énbuKÁl nigshRKas nigplb:HBal;eTA vijeTAmkénkarseRmccitþTaMgenaHkñúgTIpSar.

Epñkénesdækic©	plitkmµ	tMél	cMNUl	kargar
mIRkUesdækic© m:aRkUesdækic©	plitplkñúgshRKas mYy etIplitEdkEfbb:unµan? plitplCati plitplkñúgRsukdul	tMélénTMnijmYy -tMélénEdkEfb -tMélsaMg tMéldulénTMnij GtiprNa	karEbgEckR)ak; cMNUl nig RTBü sm,tþi cMNUlCati	PaBmankargarenAkñúg Rkumh‘unmYy cMnYnbuKÁlikkñúgRkumh‘un PaBmankargareFVI nig nikmµPaBkñúñúgesdækic©

6- Pñak;garesdækic©

edIm,IeGayTIpSarRbRBwtþeTA)an nigedayRbsiT§PaB KWRtUvEtmanPñak;garesdækic©bYn KW³

- RKYsar (Household)³ KWCaEpñkeRbIR)as;kñúgesdækic©. RKYsarmYyRbEhlCamancMnYnmnusS epSg²Kña³ mnusSmñak;rs;enAEtÉg -KUsVamIPriyaEdlman kUnbYnnak; b¤ k¾mnusS15nak;EdlminEmnCa bgb¥ÚnKñars;enACamYyKña. RKYsarmantYnaTIBIr KW CaGñkpÁt;pÁg;nUvkMlaMgBlkmµ sRmab;shRKas nig rdæ nigCaGñkeRbIR)as;nUvRTBü nig esvakmµEdleKplit)an.

- shRKas (Firm) CaGgÁPaBplitRTBü nig esva edIm,Ilk;enAelITIpSaredayeRbIR)as;nUv RbPBFnFanEdlmandUcCakMlaMgBlkmµ mUlFn vtßúFatuedIm.

¬shRKin³ KWCamnusSEdl cat;Ecg RKb;RKg nig snµt; hniP½y énshRKasmYy begáItKuMnitfµI b¤ k¾plitplfµI nigERbkøayvaeTACaCMnYjmYyEdleCaKC½y.

- rdæ (Government): CaGñkpÁt;pÁg;RTBü nig esvaeTAeGayRKYsar nig shRKasehIyrdæk¾Ca GñkEbgEcknUvcMNUlcMNayCatiEdl)anmkBIBn§daCaedIm.

- RbeTseRkA ³ CaRbeTsEdlmanTMnak;TMngesdækic© nig eyIgdUcCa karnaMecj karnaMcUl CaedIm.

7- sar³RbeyaCn_éncMeNHdwgesdækic©

ចំពោះចំណេះដឹងសេដ្ឋកិច្ចបានជួយយើងក្នុងការគ្រប់គ្រង ទៅលើជីវិតផ្ទាល់ខ្លួនរបស់យើង អោយមានការ យល់ដឹងពីសង្គម ជួយយើងអោយប្រសើរឡើងនូវស្ថានភាពលុយរបស់យើង និងអោយយើងយល់ច្បាស់ពីពេលវេលា ល្អដើម្បីខ្ចី និងសន្សំលុយ អ្នកនឹងមើលឃើញឱកាសច្រើនក្នុងការធ្វើជំនួញដោយមិនមានការខាតបង់ ហើយយល់កាន់ តែច្បាស់ថាតើសកម្មភាពតំឡើងពន្ធនិងច្បាប់របស់រដ្ឋាភិបាល នឹងជួយអ្នក ឬធ្វើអោយអ្នកឈឺចាប់? វិធីដែល សេដ្ឋកិច្ចជួយយើងនោះ មានលក្ខខណ្ឌប្លែកៗទៅតាមការរស់នៅរបស់បុគ្គលម្នាក់ៗ។ –—

emeronTI2

RbB½n§esdækic©

edIm,IedaHRsaybBaðaesdækic© CaBiesseRbIR)as;FnFanRkxSt;TaMgLaydUcCa FnFan mnusS FnFanFmµCati nig TMnijvinieyaK ¬mUlFn¦ eGaycMTIkEnøg nig cMeBlevla nigmanRbsiT§iPaB kñúgkarplitTMnij nig esva sRmab;bMeBjesckþIRtUvkarrbs;sgÁmenaH RbeTsCatinimYy²RtUvEterIs RbB½n§esdækic©mYyeGay)anCak;lak;.

CaTUeTAeKsMKal;RbB½n§esdækic©Ep¥kelImUldæansMxan;BIr KW³

1- kmµsiT§ielIFnFanesdækic© rW ktþaplitkmµ

2- karxusKñarvagynþkarRKb;RKg nig sMrbsMrYlskmµPaBesdækic©.

¯tamry³lkçxNÐTaMgBIrxagelI enAkñúgBiPBelakeyIgenHeKsegáteXIjRbB½n§esdækic©bI KW³

1- esdækic©TIpSaresrI

2- esdækic©bBa¢a

3- esdækic©cMruH

I- esdækic©TIpSaresrI

kñúgRbB½n§esdækic©TIpSaresrI kmµsiT§i elImeFüa)ayplitkmµmYyPaKFMsßitenAkñúg rgVg; karRKb;RKg rbs;EpñkÉkCn EdlCanitibuKÁl nig rUbvnþbuKÁl. ÉynþkarRKb;RKg nig sMrbsMrYl Ep¥kTaMgRsugelI ynþkarTIpSar. kñúgRbB½n§RKb;RKgesdækic©EbbenH esckþIseRmckñúkarEbgEckFnFanGaRs½yedayPñak; gar esdækic©ÉkCn. kñúgTIpSar skmµPaBplitkmµ nig karpøas;bþÚr nig kareRbIR)as;TMnij nig esva Ca TUeTAmanesrIPaBbribUrN_. kñúgRkbx½NÐesdækic©TIpSaresrI Pñak;garesdækic©nimYy² RKb;RKgedayxøÜnÉg nUvGtßRbeyaCn_pÞal;xøÜn nig RbwgERbg eFVIeGaysßanPaBGaCIvkmµrbs;xøÜnkan;Etl¥RbesIr.

elak GadamsµIt esdæviTUkøasuIk )anGHGagfa RbB½n§esdækic©EbbTIpSaresrI manlkçN³ GMeNaypll¥RbesIrBIeRBaH³

-kareRbIR)as;FnFanRbkbedayvicarNPaB

-mankMeNInplitkmµ nig Gackat;bnßyGRtanikmµPaB

-esdækic©mansßirPaB

dUecñHehIy Gñkniymesdækic©Ebbesdækic©enAEtyl;fa³ kñúgskmµPaBesdækic© rdæBuMcaM)ac;lUkédeFVI GnþraKmn_eT. rdæmantYnaTIRtwmCaGkñkarBarkmµsiT§ CaGñkbegáIt nig cat;Ecgsßab½nsgÁmRBmTaMg cgRkg eLIgnUvmUldæanc,ab;epSg² EdlcaM)ac;sRmab;CMruj nig sMrbsMrYlkarRbBwtþeTAénRbB½n§esdækic© TIpSar Etb:ueNÑaH.

1- criklkçN³énesdækic©TIpSar

RbB½n§RKb;RKgesdækic©TIpSarGacdMeNIrkareTA)anedaymanRbsiT§iPaB edaysarmansmasPaB ynþkarTIpSarsMxan;²mYycMnYndUcCa³

- kmµsiT§ÉkCn

- esrIPaBénshRKas nig CMerIs

- tYnaTIénGtßRbeyaCn_buKÁl

- karRbkYtRbECg

k- kmµsiT§ÉkCn

CaRTwsþI kñúgRbB½n§esdækic©TIpSarFnFansMPar³esÞIrEtTaMgGs;CakmµsiT§rUbvnþbuKÁl b¤ nitibuKÁl nig mYyEpñktUcCakmµsiT§saFarN³. kmµsiT§ÉkCnCamYynwgesrIPaBRKb;y:agGaceFVIeGaym©as; kmµsiT§ RtYtBinitü eRbIR)as; nig lk;FnFansMPar³ EdlCakmµsiT§rbs;xøÜnkñúgeKalbMNgEsVgrk cMNUlsRmab; bMeBjesckþIRtUvkarrbs;eKedayesrI. TnÞwmnwgenaHrdæ tamry³sßab½nc,ab;CaGñk Fana nig TTYlsÁal; kmµsiT§ nig siT§epÞrkmµsiT§rbs;xøÜneTAGñkd¾éT. kñúgRkbx½NÐenH rdæCaGaCJakNþal CaGñk Bin½y nig elIk Twkcitþdl;Pñak;garesdækic©.

x- esrIPaBénshRKin nig kareRCIserIs

lkçxNÐesdækic©TIpSaresrI EdlCitsñitCamYynwgkmñsiT§ÉkCn KWesrIPaBshRKinPaBkñúgkar eRCIserIs. kñúgesdækic©TIpSaresrI esrIPaBeRCIserIsrbs;shRKin mansar³sMxan;Nas; kñúgkarTTYl xusRtUv nig karseRmceGaymanRbsiT§iPaBCaGtibrma nUvFnFanEdlmantamral;meFüa)ay nig niti viFI EdlmankñúgrgVg;RbB½n§esdækic©TIpSaresrI.

esrIPaBshRKinmann½yfa³ m©as;kmµsiT§GacTijdUredayesrI nUvFnFanesdækic©sRmab; cat;Ecg nig eRbIR)as;FnFanTaMgenHkñúgeKalbMNgdMeNIrkarplitTMnij b¤ esva tamkareRCIserIs muxrbr GaCIvkmµrbs;xøÜnpÞal; ehIysiT§ikñúgkarlk;dUrTMnijTaMgenHkñúgTIpSar tamtMél nig cMnYnbrimaN plitpl rW esva tamkaryl;eXIjrbs;xøÜn edayKµannUv]bsKÁCalixitbTdæan b¤ karkMNt; Edl erobcMeLIgeday PaKIrdæeLIy. TnÞwmniwgenaHKµanGñkNaRtUvhamXat;shRKin kñúgkarseRmccitþ eFVI GaCIvkmµ kñúgvis½yNa mYy EdlCaEpñkrbs;esdækic©Cati b¤ cakecjBIvis½yenaHeT.

esrIPaBkñúgkareRCIserIsmann½yfa³

-m©as;kmµsiT§FnFanFmµCati nig TMnijvieyaKGaceRbIR)as; CYl b¤ lk;FnFanTaMgenHtamkar yl;eXIjrbs;xøÜn.

-m©as;kMlaMgBlkmµ RBmeRBoglk;kMlaMgBlkmµ tamtMélénsmtßPaBrbs;xøÜn.

-GñkeRbIR)as;manesrIPaBkñúgRkbx½NÐfvika b¤ cMNUlEdlxøÜnmansRmab;TijTMnij nig esva kñúg tMél nig brimaNEdlxøÜnyl;fa smRsb nig bMeBjbMNgrbs;xøÜn)an.

KYrkt;sMKal;fa³ kñúgn½yenHesrIPaBrbs;GñkeRbIR)as;manlkçN³TUlMTUlayNas; BIeRBaH esrIPaBrbs;plitkr tamkarCak;Esþg sßitkñúgRBMEdnénesckþIRtUvkarrbs;GñkeRbIR)as;Gñk eRbIR)as;Ca GñkseRmceGayplitkr etIRtUvplitGVI? plitdUcemþc? plitcMnYnb:unµan? BIeRBaHplitkr minGac plitGVIEdlGñkeRbIR)as;minR)afñaenaHeT.

K-tYnaTIénGtßRbeyaCn_buKÁl

edayesdækic©TIpSaresrImanlkçN³CaRbB½n§esdækic©buKÁl KµanGVIKYregOgq¶l;fa³ kMlaMgclkr énesdækic©enHsßitkñúgkarCMrujGtßRbeyaCn_buKÁlenaHeT. Pñak;garesdækic©nimYy² maneKalbMNgdUcKña KWRtUveFVIy:agNaedIm,IeGayGaCIvkmµrbs;xøÜn)anTTYlGtßRbeyaCn_eRcIn CaBiess)anTTYlcMNUlCa Gtibrima nig bg;xatcMNayCaGb,brma. CamYyKñaenaH m©as;kmµsiT§FnFanxitxMlk; rW CYlFnFanTaMg enHkñúgtMélx<s; ÉGñkeRbIR)as; TMnij rW esvaRtUvkarGVIEdlmanKuNPaBx<s; nig tMélTab. niyayrYm esdækic©mUlFnniym bgðajeLIgBIGtßRbeyaCn_buKÁl kñúgkarbegáItmUldæanCaKMrU sRmab;karRbRBwtþieTA rbs;Pñak;garesdækic©nimYy² kñúgkarGnuvtþn_esrIPaBeRCIserIsrbs;xøÜn. dUcenH eyIgGacsnñidæan)anfa³ lMnaMGtßRbeyaCn_buKÁl CaGñktERmtRmg; nig eFVIeGayreboberobrytamKnøgénesdækic©TIpSar BIeRBaH ebIxVHlMnaMenH PaBGnaFibetyü nwgekIteLIgCaBuMxan.

X-karRbkYtRbECg

esrIPaBkñúgkareRCIserIs nwgRbRBwtþeTAkñúgeKalbMNgedIm,ITTYlcMNUlEdlseRmc)aneday qøgkat;karRbkYtRbECg. karRbkYtRbECg GacRbRBwtþeTA)ankñúgkrNI³

- vtþmanGñklk; nig GñkTijeRcInkñúgTIpSar

- esrIPaBGñklk; nig GñkTij.

CaTUeTAenAeBlEdlmanvtþmanGñklk; nig GñkTijeRcIn kñúgTIpSar CaRbkarEdlminGaceFVI eGay Gñklk; b¤ GñkTijNamñak;kMNt;tRmUvkar b¤ karpÁt;pÁg; elImuxTMnijNamYy)aneLIyCaBiess eKmin Gacman\T§iBlelIéføTMnij)aneT.

TnÞwmnwgenaHeyIgdwgfa³ kalNabrimaNTMnij b¤ esva mYymancMnYntic éføTMnij b¤ esva enaHnwg manéføx<s; mü:ageTot plitkrGacRBYtédKña edIm,Inwgkat;bnßykarpÁt;pÁg; ehIyCabnþBYkeKGac temIøg éføTMnij)an. enHCakrNImYy k¾b:uEnþ tamFmµtaxøwmsarkarRbkYtRbECgsMedAeBlNa Edlkñúg TIpSarman cMnYnGñklk; nig GñkTijeRcIn dUecñHPñak;garesdækic©nimYy² minGactemøIgéføTMnij b¤ kat; bnßy karpÁt;pÁg; )aneLIy. kñúgn½yenH Gñklk;mñak;²man\T§iBlticNas; kñúgkarkat;bnßykarpÁt;pÁg; edIm,ItemøIgéfø TMnij b¤ esva. dUcKñanwgGñkeRbIR)as; edaymancMnYnelIslb;kñugTIpSar ehIytamFmµta mñak;² mancMNg; cMNUlcitþdac;edayELkBIKña nig KµanGñkNaGaRs½yeday GñkNa dUecñH eKminGac nwg BYtéd Kña edIm,I nwg katbnßytRmUvkarkñúgsgÁm nig bBa©úHtMélTMnij b¤ esva)aneT.

2- KuNsm,tþi nig KuNvibtþiesdækic©TIpSar

k-KuNsm,tþiénesdækic©TIpSar

- édGrUbiy “Invisible hand”

- karRbkYtRbECg

- RbsiT§PaBénplitkmµ

- RbsiT§PaBénkarEbgEck

- karbegáItfµI

- kareFVIvimÄkarénGMNacesdækic©

¬ édGrUbiy énGadamsµIt mann½yfaPñak;garnimYy² kñúgskmµPaBesdækic©rbs;xøÜn BitEmnKitEtGtßRbeyaCn_erog²xøÜn kñúgkardak;TunedIm,IEsVgrkR)ak;cMeNj EtFatuBit GtßRbeyaCn_ buKÁl nig skmµPaBRbkYtRbECgrbs;BYkeK bMerIeGayynþkarTIpSarmandMeNIrkar)antamlMdab; lMeday. Pñak;garesdækic©nimYy² mantYnaTIkñúgkarCMrujeGay manCvPaB (Dynamism) kñúgkarGPivDÆn_ esdækic©. edayELkeTot karman)anrbs;Pñak;garesdækic©nimYy²rYmKña KWCaEpñkmYyénkarrIkcMerInrbs; sgÁmCatiTaMgmUl.

x-KuNvib,tþiénesdækic©TIpSar

- Pñak;garEdlsmRsbsRmab;karRbkYtRbECgminRKb;RKan;

- plb:HBal;epSg² “Externalities”

- kgVHxatTMnijsaFarN³

- minGacedaHRsayCamYyPaBminesµIPaB

II- esdækic©Epnkar

pÞúynwgesdækic©TIpSaresrI kñúgRbB½n§RKb;RKgesdækic©bBa¢a rdæmankmµsiT§elIFnFan nig ktþa plitkmµ esÞIrEtTaMgGs; ÉynþkarRKb;RKg nig sMrbsMrYlEp¥keTAelImUldæanEpnkarrbs;rdæ mann½yfa

dMeNIrkarplitkmµsßitenAeRkamkarRKb;RKgrbs;rdæesÞIrTaMgRsug. dMeNaHRsayFM²Tak;TgeTAnwg plitkmµ kareRbIR)as; karEbgEckFnFanepSg² RtUvsßitenAeRkamkMNt;rbs;rdæ. shRKasCakmµsiT§ rbs;rdæ dUecñH skmµPaBrbs;Pñak;garesdækic©TaMgkñúgplitkmµ karEbgEck RBmTaMgkarpøas;bþÚrTMnij nig esva sßitenAeRkamkarRtYtBinitü nig RtUvGnuvtþtamEpnkarrbs;rdæ.

niyayrYmEpnkarplitkmµrbs;shRKasnimYy² cat;Ecg nig RtYtBinitüedayrdæ EdlmanRkum RbwkSaEpnkarICatMNag nig CaTUeTA RkumRbwkSaenHCaGñkeFVIEpnkar nig kMNt;cMeBaHshRKasnimYy² BIbrimaNFnFan brimaNplitpl rhUtdl;etIRtUvplitGVI? plitdUcemþc? sRmab;GñkNa? cMnYnb:unµan? kñúgéføb:unµan?. dUecñH smamaRtbrimaNplitkmµ rvagTMnij vinieyaK nig TMnijeRbIR)as; sRmab; RbCaBlrdæ RKb;RKg nig kMNt;eLIgedayEpnkarrdæ.

TnÞwmnwgenaH KYrkt;sMKal;fa Cak;EsþgRbB½n§RKb;RKgesdækic©tamrebobesdækic©bBa¢a b¤ esdækic© TIpSaesrIBuMmanlkçN³R)akdniymeLIy. ÉkarbkRsayxagelIRKan;EtCaGtßRbeyaCn_sRmab;kar yl; \dwgEtb:ueNÑaH.

bTBiesaFn_knøgmkbgðajeGayeXIjfa RbB½n§RKb;RKgesdækic©TaMgGs; kñuúgBiPBelakenHman lkçN³CaRbB½n§esdækic©cMruH (Mixed economy) ³ KWCaesdækic©cMruHEbbEpnkar b¤ Caesdækic©cMruH Ebb TIpSar.

¯KuNsm,tþi nig KuNvibtþiénesdækic©Epnkar

KuNsm,tþiénesdækic©Epnkar

-GacmankarERbRbYlkñúgry³eBlxøI

KuNvibtþiénesdækic©Epnkar

-minGaceTAtamtRmUvkarrbs;GñkeRbIR)as;

-karplitBuMsUvmanRbsiT§PaB

-manlkçN³kariyaFib,etyüeRcInEdlnaMeGaykarseRmccitþmanPaByWty:av

-BuMmanKMnitelIkTwkcitþ

III- esdækic©cMruH

kñúgRbB½n§RKb;RKgesdækic©cMruH ynþkarrdæ nig ynþkarTIpSarmantYnaTIsMxan;Nas; kñúgkar edaHRsay bBaðaCamUldæanesdækic©³ etIRtUvplitGVI? plitdUcemþc? sRmab;GñkNa? m:üageTotRbB½n§ RKb;RKg esdækic©nImYy² eRcInenAcenøaH b¤ mYyesdækic©TIpSaresrI b¤ mYyesdækic©bBa¢a. ]TahrN_³ esdækic©shrdæGaemrik Caesdækic©TIpSaresrI b:uEnþmanlkçN³Biess Rtg;rdæmantYnaTIy:agskmµkñúgkar eRbIR)as;]bkrN_m:aRkUesdækic© (Macro-economic instrument) Edlmankñúgéd sRmab;cUlrYm sRmbsRmYl kñúgdMeNIrkarGPivDÆesdækic©dUcCa GnuvtþeKalneya)aysareBIrBn§ edIm,IpÁt;pÁg;sßirPaB nig CMrujkMenInesdækic© RBmTaMgpþl;TMnij nig esvaEdlGvtþmankñúgTIpSar b¤ manBuMRKb;RKan;CaedIm. tamry³enHEdr kareFVIGnþraKmn_rbs;rdæ GacEksMrYl nig bMeBjcenøaHnUvkgVHxatrbs;ynþkarTIpSar nig edIm,IepÞr skmµPaBmanRbeyaCn_sRmab;sgÁmCatiTaMgmUl.

pÞúyBIesdækic©shrdæGaemrik esdækic©GtItshPaBsUevot nig bNþaRbeTsenA GWrubxagekIt manlkçN³Caesdækic©bBa¢a k¾b:uEnþeCosminputkñúgsßanPaBNamYyeRbIynþkaresdækic©TIpSar nig enAEt manesssl;kmµsiT§iÉkCn.

KYrkt;sMKal;fa³ kmµsiTi§ÉkCnelIFnFan nig ktþaplitkmµ nig karRKb;RKgQrelImUldæan esdækic©TIpSar dUcKñanwg kmµsiT§isgÁmelIFnFan nig ktþaplitkmµ nig karRKb;RKg manlkçN³esdækic© Epnkar Canic©CakalmanPaBRsbKñarhUtenaHeT. ]TahrN_esdækic©hugRKI nig yUehÁasøavI BitEmnman kmµsiT§isgÁmelIFnFan nig ktþaplitkmµ b:uEnþrebobRKb;RKgmanninñakarxiteTArkynþkaresdækic©TIpSar pÞúyBIenH esdækic©RbeTsGaløWm:g; sm½yhVasuIsniym mankmµsiT§ÉkCnelIFnFan nig ktþaplitkmµ EtkarRKb;RKgmanlkçN³bBa¢a nig RtYtBinitüy:agtwgrwg. esdækic©s‘uyEGt 90% énesdækic©sßitenAkñúg kNþab;édÉkCn EtrdælUkédeFVIGnþraKmn_ kñúgkarTMnukbMrugsßirPaB esdækic© nig ykcitþTukdak;kñúgkar EbgEckcMNUl (Income) . esdækic©Cb:unmanlkçN³Caesdækic©EpnkarrIkcMerIn k¾b:uEnþmuxgarRKb;RKg nig sMrbsMrYl cUlrYmy:agskmµTaMgrdæ TaMgEpñkÉkCn.

eRkayBI)anerobrab;xagelIrYcmk eyIgGacsnñidæanfa karedaHRsaybBaðaesdækic© BuMTan;mankar TTYlsÁal;CalkçN³rYmnUvrebobRKb;RKgmYyEdlman RbsiT§iPaB ehIyGaccmøgykmk edIm,IGnuvtþ kñúgRbeTsNamYyTaMgdul)aneT. BIeRBaHsgÁmepSgKña man vb,Fm’epSgKña RbvtþisaRsþepSgKña pñt;KMnit citþsaRsþ nig sIlFm’rs;enAepSgKña. FnFanmnusS TMnijvinieyaK nig FnFanFmµCati Edl mankñúgsgÁmnImYy² xusKñaTaMgbrimaN nig KuNPaB. dUecñH kareRCIserIsrebobRKb;RKgRbB½n§esdækic© RtUvekItecjBItRmUvkarCak;Esþgénkic©GPivDÆn_ nig tRmUvkarBit R)akd kñúgkarGPivDÆn_enH.

RbeTsmYyminGace)aHbg;bTBiesaFn_énkarGPivDÆn_rbs;bNþaRbeTsCitxag nig RbeTskñúg tMbn; nig kñúgBiPBelak)aneT b:uEnþ RbeTsenaHminRtUvRcLMfa {bBaðaEdlkMBugekIteLIg kñúgRbeTsNa mYyenaHdUcsuT§saFnwgbBaða EdlkMBugekItmanenAkñúgRbeTsxøÜnenaHeT ehIybBaðamYycMnYnEdlkMBug manenAkñúgRbeTsxøÜn k¾minGacniyayfa kMBugEtmanenAkñúgRbeTsepSgeTotEdr}.

–—

emeronTI3

RbB½n§TIpSar

mIRkUesdækic© sikSaGMBIkarRbRBwtþeTAénRbB½n§éføEdleyIgRtUvEtyl;dwgBIynþkarTIpSar EdlCa sñÚlénRbB½n§enH. eyIgcab;epþImedayBiPakSaelIsBaØaNRKwHén tRmUvkar nig karpÁt;pÁg;. bnÞab;mkeyIg nwgsikSaGMBIPaByWténtRmUvkar . ehIyeyIg nwgGFib,ayy:agxøIGMBIrebobkMNt;éfø nig eXIjBIrebob bMPøWbBaðaerobcMneya)aysMxan;²naeBlbc©úb,nñ edayeRbIlT§plrbs;eyIg.

I- TIpSar nig éføénplitpl

-TIpSar KWCakEnøgCYbKñarvag Gñklk; nig GñkTijeTAelITMnijNamYy.(Traditional definition)

-TIpSar KWCa GtifiCnEdlmanskþanuBl. ¬niymn½yrbs;Gñk TIpSar¦

-TIpSar KWCaRkuménshRKas nig buKÁlTMagLay EdlmanTMnak;TMngCamYyKñakñúgeKalbMNg Tij nig lk;TMnijNamYy. (Modern definition)

cUrcaMfaTIpSarbegáIteLIgedayGñkTijEdlmantRmUvkar nigGñklk;EdlCaGñkpÁt;pÁg;. dUcenH eyIgGacniyay)anfaéføénplitplmYyRtUv)ankMNt;eLIgedayTIpSar enAkñúgesdækic©TIpSaresrI eRBaH faGñklk;nigGñkTijRtUvRBmeRBogeTAelIéføNamYy eTIbdMeNIrkaredaHdUrRbRBwtþeTA)an.

II- tRmUvkar

tamRbsasn_rbs;elak Thomas Carlyle “vaCakargayRsYlNas;kñúgkareronesdækic© sUm,IEt stVeskk¾ecHniyay BaküfatRmUvkar nig karpÁt;pÁg;Edr ” . Kat;cg;mann½yfa tRmUvkar nig karpÁt;pÁg;KWmantYnaTIsñÚlenAkñúgesdækic©. TIpSarénral;TMnijTaMgGs; manEpñktRmUvkar nig EpñkpÁt;pÁg;.

1- GVIeTACatRmUvkar?

etITwkRkUclk;)anb:unµanRbsinebIéførbs;va 1 duløarkñúgmYykMb:ug? cuHebIéførbs;va 2 rW 3 duløar vij? EdlTaMgenHCaTMnak;TMngrvagéførbs;TMnij nig brimaNtRmUvkarrbs;va EdleKehAfa tRmUvkar. tRmUvkar KWCabrimaNEdlGñkTij cg; nig manlT§PaBTij cMeBaHéføNamYy kñúgeBlNamYy.

]TahrN_³ CaFmµtaGñkRsIluy Caerogral;ExEtgEt TUrs½BÞeTAeRkARbeTsCanic©. b:uEnþcMnYn énkarTUrs½BÞrbs;Kat;eXIjfaERbRbYlCanic©. kalNaéfø15$ sRmab;karehAecjmYydgkñúgExenaH Kat;min)anTUrs½BÞeT b:uEnþebIéfø10$ eXIjfaKat;)anTUrs½BÞcMnYn1dg. cMeBaHkrNIéføenARtwm7duløar vij eXIjfaKat;)anTUrs½BÞcMnYn2dg. tamry³]TahrN_enHeyIgeXIjfabrimaNtRmUvkarenAéføTabpÞúyBIbrimaNtRmUvkarenAéføx<s;.

brimaNtRmUvkarehATUrs½BÞmanTisedApÞúyKñaBIéfø. éføcuHefakkarehATUrs½BÞekIneLIg.

2- c,ab;éntRmUvkar

]TahrN_xagelIKWCamUldæanRKwHén c,ab;éntRmUvkar³

brimaNtRmUvkarekIneLIgenAeBlEdléføFøak;cuH ¬GVI²epSgeTotenAdEdl¦

b¤ pÞúymkvij³

brimaNtRmUvkarfycuHenAeBlEdléføekIneLIg ¬GVI²epSgeTotenAdEdl¦

edIm,IeXIjfac,ab;éntRmUvkareqøIytby:agdUcem:þc³ RKan;EtKiteTAelIGVImYyEdlGñkcUlcitþBit R)akd b:uEnþGñkminGacTij)an. RbsinebIéføcuHefakBak;kNþal Gñk nig Gñkd¾éTeTot nwgGac kan;Et xøaMgeLIg edIm,ITijva. brimaNtRmUvkarekIneLIg kñúgeBlEdléføFøak;cuH.

3- ExSekagtRmUvkar

ExSekagtRmUvkar KWCaRkahVic tMNageGayTMnak;TMngrvagéfø nig brimaNtRmUvkar.

]TahrN_³taragtRmUvkarRsaeborrbs;elaktUnIsRmab;mYys)þah_

tMélkñúg1kMb:ug brimaNtRmUvkarkñúg1s)þah_

6$ 1 kMb:ug

5$ 2 kMb:ug

4$ 3 kMb:ug

3$ 4 kMb:ug

2$ 5 kMb:ug

1$ 6 kMb:ug

edayyktMélkñúgtaragxagelImkKUsCaRkahVic eyIgnwgTTYl)anExSekagtRmUvkar Rsaebor rbs;elaktUnI dUcbgðajkñúgrUb xageRkam. ExSekagtRmUvkarkñúgrUbbgðajfa enAkñúgry³eBlkMnt;mYy RbsinebIéføRsaeboresµInwg6duløar enaHKat;nwgTijRsaebor1kMb:ug. RbsinebIéføRsaeboresµInwg5duløar Kat;nwgTij2kMb:ug. dUecñHcMnucTaMgLayenAelIExSekagtRmUvkartMNageGayCMerIsepSg²KñaedaybuKÁl enaH eTAkñúgry³eBlkMnt;mYy.

Price

Quantity

4- tRmUvkarTIpSar

tRmUvkarTIpSar KWCaplbUkbrimaNtRmUvkarTaMgGs;énTMnij b¤ esvamYy EdlRtUvkareday RKYsar TaMgGs;kñúgTIpSarénTMnij b¤ esvaenaH kñúgry³eBlmYy.

]TahrN_³ tRmUvkarRsaeborABC enAelITIpSarmYykñúgeBl1s)þah_. enAkñúgéfø 3,5$ elak k RtUvkar4kMb:ug elak x minRtUvkar cMENkÉelak K RtUvkar4kMb:ugEdr. edayELkenAkñúgéfø 1.5$ eXIjfaelak k RtUvkar8 kMb:ug nig elak x RtUvkar3kMb:ug rIÉelak K RtUvkardl;eTA9kMb:ug.

dUecñH eyIg)antRmUvkarsrubkñúgs)þah_³

kñúgéfø 3.5$ brimaNtRmUvkarsrubKWesµInwg 8kMb:ug ( = 4+0+4 )

kñúgéfø 1.5$ brimaNtRmUvkarsrubKWesµInwg 20kMb:ug ( =8+3+9 )

1.5

3.5

1.5

3.5

1.5

3.5

1.5

3.5

ExSekagtRmUvkarrbs; k

ExSekagtRmUvkarrbs; x

ExSekagtRmUvkarrbs; K

ExSekagtRmUvkarTIpSar

5- bMErbMrYltRmUvkar

GVIEdleyIg)aneronrYcmkehIyenAEpñkxagelIénemeronGMBItRmUvkar KWeKsikSaEtGMBIktþaéfø mYyb:ueNÑaHedayTukeGayktþad¾éTeTotenAefr b:uEnþeBlenHeyIgsikSaktþaesdækic©epSg²eTotEdleFVI eGaymanbMErbMrYltRmUvkar eBalKWbNþaleGayExSekagtRmUvkarrMkilecjBITItaMgedImrbs;va.

ktþaTaMgenaHman³

1-éføTMnijTak;TgKña

2-cMNUlrbs;GtifiCn

3-cMNUlcitþrbs;GtifiCn

4-karsgÇwmTukrbs;GtifiCn

5-cMnYnGtifiCn

5>1> éføTMnijTak;TgKña

eKGacEckTMnijTak;TgCaBIrRbePTKW TMnijCMnYsKña nig TMnijbMeBjeGayKña.

TMnijCMnYsKña KWCa TMnij EdlGacbMeBjtYnaTICMnYsKñaeTAvijeTAmk. enAeBlEdléføTMnij mYyekIneLIg tRmUvkarTMnijmYy eTot k¾ekIneLIgEdr. ]TahrN_ebIsinCaéføsac;RCUk mankarekIneLIg enaHmnusSnignaMKñapøas;bþÚrmk hUb sac;man;vij.pÞúymkvijebIsinCaéføsac;man;ekIneLIg ehIyéfø sac;RCUkenAdEdl enaHmnusS k¾nwg pøas;mkhUbsac;RCUkvijEdr. eyIgeXIjfasac;RCUk Gac CMnYs sac;man Ésac;man;k¾GacCMnYssac;RCUk. dUecñHsac;man; nwgsac;RCUkCaTMnijCMnYsKña.

TMnijbMeBjKña KWCaTMnijEdlGacbMeBjtYnaTIbMeBjeGayKñaeTAvijeTAmk)an. karbnßyéføén TMnijmYy niwgnaMeGaytRmUvkarsRmab;TMnijmYyeTotekIneLIg. ehIypÞúymkvijebIéføénTMnijmYy ekIneLIg nwgnaMeGaytRmUvkarsRmab;TMnijmYyeTotfycuH. ]TahrN_m:asuIncak;suIDI nigsuIDI Rbsin ebIsuIDImankarcuHéfø enaHbrimaNtRmUvkarm:asuIncak;suIDIekIneLIgEdr pÞúymkvijRbsinebItMél suIDIeLIg éføeBlenaHtRmUvkarm:asuIncak;suIDInwgFøak;cuH.

5>2> R)ak;cMNUlGñkGtifiCn

RbsinebIGñkeRbIR)as;TTYl)annUvR)ak;cMNUleRcIn eBlenaHeKnwgsgÇwmfaKat;nwgmantRmUvkar eRcIneTAelIplitplmYyenaH kñúgkrNIEdléførbs;vaenAefrdEdl cMeBaHTMnijFmµta (Normal goods) . EtcMeBaHTMnijEdleyIgcat;TukfaCaTMnijEdlmanKuNPaBTab (Inferior goods) eBlR)ak;cMNUl mankarekIneLIg eKQb;eRbIR)as;va ehIygakmkeRbIR)as;TMnijFmµta b¤ TMnijRbNit (luxury goods) eRcInCag.

CaTUeTAeKGacniyay)anfakalNaR)ak;cMNUlekIneLIg enaHtRmUvkareTAelITMnijk¾ekIneLIg Edr. b:uEnþebIeKniyaykñúgkrNIeKniyaycMeBaHTMnijKuNPaBGn; (inferior goods) kalNacMNUlekIn eLIg EbrCabrimaNtRmUvkarTMnijTaMgenaHfycuHeTAvij.

5>3> cMNUlcitþrbs;GtifiCn

GtifiCnminEmnEtgEtcg;)anvtßúdUcKñaenaHeT. karpSayBaniC¢kmµ karraykarBt’man ninñakar mU:Edl karbgðajcMeBaHplitplfµI nigehtukarN_pøas;bþÚrkñúgrdUvkalGacb:HBal;dl;cMNUlcitþGtifiCn. ]TahrN_enAeBlplitplmYy)aneCaKC½ykñúgkarpSayBaniC¢kmµkñúgviTüú TUrTsSn_ b¤k¾ Internet . RbCaRbiyPaBrbs;vaekIneLIg ehIyRbCaCnTMngCaTijvakan;EteRcIneLIg. RbsinebIGtifiCncg;)an vtßúmYyeRcIneLIg BYkeKnwgTijvaeRcIneLIg²ral;éf¶ nig kñúgéføNak¾eday. ]TahrN_m:üageTotcMeBaH karsþab;tRnþI enAeBlGñkenAekµgGñkcUlcitþbTcMerogjak;² bu:EnþkalNaGñkcas;cMNUlcitþ cMeBaHbT TaMgenaHrbs;GñkRbEhlCa)at;bg;ehIyGñkgakmksþab;bTEdlmancgVak;yWt² b¤ bTcas;².

dUecñHehIyCaTUeTAeKminsUvykcMNUlcitþmkKitKUrb:unµaneT edayeKcat;TukfavaminEmnCaGefr caM)ac;sRmab;karviPaK EtcMeBaHkarpSayBaniC¢kmµvij b¤ k¾sRmab;bMerIeGayyuT§saRsþ m:aXItFIgvaman sar³sMxan;Nas;.

5>4> karsgÇwmTukrbs;GtifiCn

karsgÇwmTuksMedAelIlkçN³rbs;mnusSkñúgkarKitGMBIGnaKtrbs;BYkeK. RbsinebIBYkeK sgÇwmfaR)ak;cMNUlrbs;BYkeKmankarekIneLIg enaHnaMeGaybrimaNtRmUvkar naeBlbc©úb,nñrbs; BYkeKk¾ekIneLIgEdr. ]TahrN_ buKÁlikGgÁkarmYyKat;sgÇwm faKat;nwgTTYl)ankartMeLIg R)ak;Ex kñúgExxagmux eyIgeXIjfakarcMNayrbs;Kat;kñúgExenHhak;dUcCaeRcInCagsBVdg nigxusBIGñk EdlnwgminTTYlkartMeLIgR)ak;Ex. ehIypÞúymkvijk¾dUecñaHEdr cMeBaHkarsgÇwmTukcMeBaHfaenA eBlGnaKtR)ak;cMNYl rbs;Kat;nwgfycuH enaHeyIgnwgeXIjfaskmµPaBTijrbs;Kat;nwgfycuHEdr. m:üageTotebIsinCa GtifiCnsgÇwmfaéføTMnijNamYynwgFøak;;cuH eBlenaHeXIj fabrimaNtRmUvkar naeBlbc©úb,nñrbs;TMnij enaHKWmankarFøak;cuHEdr.]TahrN_ ]bmafaRkumh‘unplitmU:tUmYy Rbkasfa nwgplitm:UtUEdlmanbec©kviTüax<s; suIsaMgtic RBmTaMgtMélefakCagmun. eTaHCa plitpl m:UtUfµIenH RbEhlCaminGacrk)anenAqñaMeRkay GtifiCnRbEhlCaTijticCagmunkñúgbc©úb,nñ nigGtifiCnmYy cMnYnminTijeRBaHeKrgcaMplitpl fµIEdll¥Cag nigefakCag.

CakarBitNas;karsgÇwmTukEfmTaMgGacmanplb:HBal;xøaMgelItRmUvkarTIpSar. ]TahrN_ Rbsin ebIsßanIy]tuniymTsSn_TayfanwgmaneRKaHTwkCMnn;bMpøajpldMNaM RbCaCnRbEhlCa TijTuk nUvTMnij xøH²munnwgvaERbkøayCakMr. kars½µRKcitþedIm,ITijeRcIneLIgkñúgéføNak¾eday nwgbNþaleGay tRmUvkarekIneLIg. dUecñHvaCakarsMxan;Nas;sRmab;Gñkesdækic©RtUvdwg nig yl;eGayc,as;BIninñakar rbs;GñkeRbIR)as;.

5>5> cMnYnGtifiCn

karERbRbYlkñúgcMNUl cMNUlcitþ nig éføénTMnijTak;Tg b:HBal;dl;tRmUvkarbuKÁl nigeFVI eGay ExSekagtRmUvkarbuKÁlrMkilpgEdr dUcKñaenHEdrvak¾b:HBal;dl;tRmUvkarTIpSarpgEdr EdlCakar srubénral;tRmUvkarrbs;buKÁlTaMgGs;. dUecñHehIykarekIneLIgcMnYn GtifiCnelITIpSar GacbNþal eGaytRmUvkarekIneLIg ehIyk¾GaceFVIeGayExSekagtRmUvkarrMkilEdr.

RkugPñMeBjCa]TahrN_Cak;EsþgmYy kalBImunRkugPñMeBjcMnYnRbCaCntic eXIjfapÞHElVgenA mancMnYntic nig enAEtkñúgRkug b:uEnþedaysarcMnYnRbCaCnkan;EteRcIneLIgsBVéf¶pÞHElVgraldaldl; CayRkug. enHbgðajfaRbCaCnRkugPñMeBjmantRmUvkarpÞHElVgkan;EteRcIneLIg. enAextþesomerobk¾ dUcKñaEdreyIgeXIjfacab;taMgBIkare)aHeqñat qñaM1993 manePJóveTscrN_ekIneLIgCalMdab;rhUtmk dl;sBVéf¶enH rIÉcMnYnsNæaKar pÞHsMNak;mankarekIneLIgCabnþbnÞab;dUcedIm,IbMeBjtRmUvkarGtifiCn.

6- karrMkilExSekagtRmUvkar

eyIg)andwgrYcmkehIyfaktþaTaMg5Edl)ansikSaxagelIsuT§EtbNþaleGayExSekagtRmUvkar rMkilpøas;TIBIkEnøgedIm.

taragtRmUvkarRseborrbs;tUnIenAeBlEdlcMNUlekIneLIgBI50 eTA 100 duløarkñúgs)þah_

tMél brimaNtRmUvkarkñúg1s)þah_ brimaNtRmUvkarkñúg1s)þah_

kñúg1kMb:ug eBlcMNUl 50$ eBlcMNUl100$

6 1 2

5 2 3

4 3 4

3 4 5

2 5 6

1 6 7

éfø

brimaN

III- karpÁt;pÁg;

enAkñúgKMnitmYy karpÁt;pÁg;CarUbkBa©k;éntRmUvkar. buKÁlRKb;RKgktþaplitkmµ KWFnFanEdlcaM )ac;sRmab;plitTMnij. karpÁtpÁg;rbs;buKÁlénktþaTaMgenH eTAkñúgTIpSar bBa©aMgnUvtRmUvkar rbs;buKÁl d¾éTsRmab;ktþaTaMgenH.

1- GVIeTACakarpÁt;pÁg;?

karpÁt;pÁg; KWCacMnYnTMnij nigesvaTaMgLayEdlGñklk; ¬Gñkplit¦manbMNg nig manlT§PaB

plitedIm,Ilk; ¬pÁt;pÁg;¦ enAelITIpSar cMeBaHéføNamYykñúgkMLúgeBlNamYy.

]TahrN_³ cMkarmYyenARsukeCar)andaMsENþkesog RBmTaMgdMNaMepSg²Caerogral;qñaM. cMkar

EtgEtpÁt;pÁg;TinñplsENþkesogeTAkan;TIpSarkñúgRsuk. b:uEnþbrimaNénkarpÁt;pÁgeXIjfa mankar ERbRbYl mineTogTat; edaysaréføénsENþkesogenAelITIpSar kalNaéføsENþkesog1500erolkñúg 1 KILÚRkam cMkarmin)anlk;sENþkesogkñúgTIpSareT. ebIéføeLIgdl;1800kñúg 1KILÚRkam cMkar )an lk; cMnYn 10 000 KILÚRkam. eBlEdléføsENþkesogeLIgdl;2000erol kñúg 1KILÚRkam cMkar pÁt;pÁg; dl;eTA 20 000 KILÚRkam.

]TahrN_enHbgðajfa brimaNpÁt;pÁg;enAéføTab xusBIbrimaNpÁt;pÁg;enAéføx<s;.

2- c,ab;énkarpÁt;pÁg;

manc,ab;énpÁt;pÁg;mYyEdleqøIytbnwgc,ab;éntRmUvkar. c,ab;énkarpÁt;pÁg;niyayfa³

brimaNpÁt;pÁg;ekIneLIgenAeBlEdléføekIneLIg ¬GVIepSgeTotenAdEdl¦

rWpÞúymkvij³

brimaNpÁt;pÁg;fycuHenAeBlEdléføFøak;cuH ¬GVIepSgeTotenAdEdl¦

éføkRmitbrimaNpÁt;pÁg;dUcEdrvakRmitbrimaNtRmUvkar. dUcc,ab;éntRmUvkar c,ab;énkarpÁt;pÁg; KWCaRKwHcMeBaHsmtßPaBrbs;TIpSaredIm,IsMrbsMrYlskmµPaBbuKÁl.

GVIeTAEdlBnül;ehtuplénc,ab;pÁt;pÁg;?enAeBléføénTMnijeLIg buKÁlnigshRKasGacerobcM skmµPaBrbs;BYkeKedIm,IpÁt;pÁg;TMnijeRcInbEnßmeTAkan;TIpSar. c,ab;énkarpÁt;pÁg;QrelImUldæan smtßPaBedIm,ICMnYsplitkmµénTMnijmYyeTATMnijmYyeTot. RbsinebIéføeBatekIneLIg nigéføRsUvGt; pøas;bþÚrksikrGacdaMRsUvticnigeBateRcIn ¬GVIepSgeTotenAdEdl¦.

3- ExSekagpÁt;pÁg;

ExSekagpÁt;pÁg; KWCaRkahVictMNageGayTMnak;TMngrvagéfønigbrimaNpÁt;pÁg;.

taragpÁt;pÁg;Rsaeborrbs;Rkumh‘unABCkñúg1Ex

éføkñúg1kMb:ug brimaNpÁt;pÁg;kñúg1Ex

1$ 1000 kMb:ug

2 2000

3 3000

4 4000

5 5000

6 6000

éfø

brimaN

ehtuGVI)anCaExSekagpÁt;pÁg;)aj;eLIgelIeq<aHeTAxagsþaM? caMfaExSekag)aj;eLIgelIekþabnUv c,ab;énkarpÁt;pÁg;. vaR)ab;eyIgfabrimaNpÁt;pÁg;ERbRbYledayRtg; kñúgTisedAdUcKñanwgéfø.

4- pÁt;pÁg;TIpSar

KWCaplbUlénral;karpÁt;pÁgeTalTaMgGs;enAkñúgTIpSarTMnij b¤esvamYy.

]TahrN_³ karpÁt;pÁg;sENþkesogkñúgTIpSarkñúgry³eBlmYyqñaM. manksidæanbI KW A B nig C EdlpÁt;pÁg; sENþkesogenAkñúgTIpSar . enAeBlEdléføsENþkesogesµInwg3000erolkñúg 1KILÚRkam eXIjfa ksidæanA pÁt;pÁg; 30 000KILÚRkam -ksidæanB pÁt;pÁg; 10 000 KILÚRkam -ksidæanC pÁt;pÁg; 25 000 KILÚRkam. kñúgkrNIéføRtwmEt 1800erolkñúg1 KILÚRkam-ksidæanApÁt;pÁg; 10 000 KILÚRkam - ksidæanB pÁt;pÁg ;5000 KILÚRkam nig ksidæan CpÁt;pÁg; 10 000 KILÚRkam.

dUecñHeyIg)anpÁt;pÁg;TIpSarsrubkñúg1qñaMEdlCaplbUlbrimaNpÁt;pÁg;énksidæanTaMgbI KW³

-kñúgéfø3000erol brimaNpÁt;pÁg;esµInwg 65 000 KILÚRkam ( =30,000+10,000+25,000 )

-kñúgéfø1800erol brimaNpÁt;pÁg;esµInwg 25 000 KILÚRkam ( =10,000+5,000+10,000)

25,000

65,000

1.8

3.00

éfø

brimaNpÁtpÁg;

S_A+B+C

ExSekagpÁt;pÁg;TIpSar

5- bMErbMrYlpÁt;pÁg;

dUcExSekagtRmUvkarEdr ExSekagpÁg;pÁg;bBa¢ak;nUvTMnak;Tngrvagéførbs;TMnij b¤esva nig birmaN énkarpÁt;pÁg;kñúgTIpSar edaycat;Tukktþad¾éTeTotenAefrdEdl. \LÚvenH eyIgmksikSaktþa epSg²eTot EdleFVIeGaymanbMErbMrYlpÁt;pÁg; KWmann½yfaExSekagpÁt;pÁg;rkilecjBITItaMgedImrbs;va.

ktþaTaMgenaHrYmman³

-éføedIménktþaplitkmµ

-éføénTMnijCMerIsd¾éTeTot

-sßanPaBbec©kvITüa

-Bn§ nig ]btßmÖFn

-karsgÇwmTukrbs;plitkr

-cMnYnGñkplit

5>1> éføedIménktþaplitkmµ

shRKasplitedIm,IrkR)ak;cMeNj. edaysarEtR)ak;cMeNjrbs;BYkeKCab;Tak;TgeTAnwgéfø edIménktþaplitkmµ vaminKYreGayPJak;ep¥IleTEdléføedImnwgb:HBal;dl;cMnYnEdlshRKassµ½RKcitþ pÁt;pÁg;TMnij. RbsinebIéføedImekIneLIg R)ak;cMenjnwgFøak;cuH ehIyRkumh‘unKµanTwkcitþedIm,IpÁt;pÁg;eT. karpÁt;pÁg;Føak;cuHenAeBlEdléføktþaplitkmµekIneLIg. RbsinebIéføedImekIneLIgeRcIn shRKas RbEhlCaRtUvbiTTVar.

5>2> éføénTMnijCMerIsd¾éTeTot

TMnijCMerIsd¾éTeTot (alternative goods) KWCaRbePTTMnijEdlpliteLIgedayeRbIR)as;nUv vtßúFatuedIm mYycMnYndUcnwgvtßúFatuedImEdleyIgeRbIR)as;sRmab;plitTMnijrbs;eyIgEdr. edayehtu enHehIy)anCaenAeBlEdléførbs;nMnijCMerIsd¾éTekIneLIgKWCamUlehtuEdlnaMeGayplitkrRtUvseRmccitþ plitvaCMnYseGaykarplitTMnijcas;enaH.

5>3> sßanPaBbec©kviTüa

bec©kviTüaQanmux eFVIeGayERbRbYlnUvdMeNIrkarplitkmµ kat;bnßynUvktþaplitkmµEdl RtUvkar edIm,IplitnUvTMnijmYy. TaMgenHvaGaceFVIeGayéføedIménplitkmµTab b¤k¾GacbegIánplitPaB . ]TahrN_karbegáInRbsiT§PaBsnSMsMécsaMgénm:asuInynþehaH Gackat;bnßyéføedImesvakmµrbs;va. enAeBlEdléføedImplitkmµFøak;cuH GñkplitKat;nwgTTYl)anR)ak;cMeNjeRcIn ehIybNþaleGayBYk eKbegáInplikmµ. dUecñHbec©kvITüaQanmux begáInkarpÁt;pÁg;.

5>4> Bn§ nig ]btßmÖFn

shRKascat;TukBn§CaéføedIm. Bn§begáInéføedIménplitkmµedaytMrUveGayshRKasbg;Bn§dl; rdæaPi)alnUvmYycMENkéncMNUlBIplitpl. eRBaHEtBn§)anbegáInéføedIménplikmµ R)ak;cMeNjFøak;cuH ehIyGñkpÁt;pÁg;nwgkat;bnßykarpÁt;pÁg;.

]btßmÖFn KWCakarpþl;luyrbs;rdæaPi)alcMeBaHbuKÁl CMnYj b¤k¾Rkumh‘und¾éTeTot edIm,ICMruj b¤ karBarnUvRbePTénskmµPaBesdækic©mYy. ]btßmÖFneFVIeGayéføedImplitkmµFøak;cuH CMrujeGayGñk plitbc©úb,nñeGaysßitkñúgTIpSar nig GñkplitfµIcUlmk.

enAshrdæGaemrik ksikrEdlplitTWkedaH daMeBat RsUvsalI nig sENþkesog TTYl)annUv ]btßmÖFny:ageRcInedIm,IKaMRTnUvcMNUlrbs;BYkeK.

5>5> karsgÇwmTukrbs;plitkr

karsgÇwmTukGMBItMéleTAGnaKténplitplmYyk¾Gacb:HBal;dl;karpÁt;pÁg;Edr. RbsinebI Gñk plitKitfaéføplitplrbs;BYkeKnwgekIneLIg BYkeKRbEhlCakat;bnßykarplitxøH². vanwgnaMeGay karpÁt;pÁg;fycuH. m:üageTotplitkrRbEhlCaKitfaéføénTinñplrbs;BYkeKnwgcuHefakCagmun. kñúg sßanPaBenHBYkeKRbEhlCaBüayamedIm,Iplit niglk;Pøam² eGayeRcIntamEdlGaceFVIeTA)an.

5>6> cMnYnGñkplit

RbsinebIRkumh‘unkan;EteRcIncUleTAkñúg]sSahkmµmYy ExSekagpÁt;pÁg;rkileTAxagsþaM. kñúg n½y m:üageTot cMnYnGñklk;kan;EteRcIn naMeGaycMnYnénkarpÁt;pÁg;kan;EtFM.RbsinebIGñkpÁt;pÁg;cakecj BITIpSar eyIgeXIjfamanplitpltictYcenAelITIpSarmann½yfakarpÁt;pÁgTIpSarfycuH.

¯karrMkilExSekagpÁt;pÁg;

]bmafaRkumh‘unRsaeborABC)anrkeXIjbec©kviTüafµIkñúgkarplitEdlCYyeGayRkumh‘un plitkñúgéføedImefakCagmun. dUecñHRkumh‘un)anbegáInxitxMbegáInkarplitrbs;xøÜn.

éføkñúg1kMb:ug brimaNpÁt;pÁgcas; brimaNpÁt;pÁg;fµI

1 duløar 1000 kMb:ug 2000 kMb:ug

2 2000 3000

3 3000 4000

4 4000 5000

5 5000 6000

IV- ktþakMNt;éfø

1- lMnwgTIpSar

skmµPaBTIpSarCakarBitNas;RtUvBwgEp¥kelIskmµPaBeTAvijeTAmkénGñkpÁt;pÁg; nig Gñk RtUvkar.

1>1> PaBelIsénkarpÁt;pÁg;

PaBelIsénkarpÁt;pÁg; ¬PaBelIs¦ mann½yfabrimaNpÁt;pÁg;FMCagbrimaNtRmUvkar. enAeBl ekItekItmanPaBelIsGñkpÁt;pÁg;xøHnwgminGaclk;nUvral;plitplrbs;eKGs;)aneT. GñkpÁt;pÁg;TaMg Gs; nwgKitfa³ yI RbsinebIxJúMpþl;tMéllk;efakCagmunbnþic xJúMnwgmansMNaglk;TMnijrbs;xJúMGs;mun TMnijrbs;Gñkd¾éT . b:uEnþBIeRBaHEt GñkpÁt;pÁg;TMnijTaMgGs;EdlmanTMnijelIssuT§EtKitGBa©wgdUcKña dUecñHnaMeGayéføenAkñúgTIpSarnwgFøak;cuH. enAeBlEdléføkñúgTIpSarFøak;cuH GtifiCnnigbegáIn brimaN tRmUvkar. dUcenHclnaeq<aHeTAcMnuclMnwg begáIteLIgedayPaBelIsénkarpÁt;pÁg; KWenAelITaMgEpñk pÁtpÁg; nig EpñktRmUvkar.

1>2> PaBelIséntRmUvkar

bRBa©asmkvij RbsinebImanPaBelIsénkarpÁt;pÁg; k¾manPaBelIséntRmUvkarEdr ¬kgVHxat¦. PaBelIséntRmUvkarmann½yfa brimaNtRmUvkar KWFMCagbrimaNpÁt;pÁg;. manGtifiCn CaeRcIncg;)anTMnij eRcInCagTMnijEdlGñkpÁt;pÁg;manlk;. dUecñHmann½yfamanplitpl minRKb;RKan; edIm,IbMeBjesckþIRtUvkarrbs;GtifiCn EdlCaehtueFVIeGaymanGtifiCnxøHnwgBüayamTijenAkñúgéfø Edlx<s;CagmuneBlenaHehIy GVIEdlekIteLIgenaHKW tMélTIpSarekIneLIg.

1>3> lMnwgTIpSar

CaTUeTARbB½n§mYykñúgPaBlMnwgenAeBlral;kMlaMgTaMgGs;kñúgkargarkñúgRbB½n§enaH RtUv)anp¥ak edaykMlaMgedaykMlaMgNamYyeTot edayCalT§plénesßrPaB b¤smtulü. ]TahrN_enAkñúgrUbvITüa )al;TMlak;BIrs½rmYy vamanlMnwgenAeBlEdlrs½rTajlUtRKb;RKan;eBlEdlkMlaMgCMrujeLIgelIEdlva dak;eTAelI)al; RtUv)aneFVIeGayesµIKñaedaykMlaMgCMrujcuHeRkaménkMlaMgTMnajEpndI. enAkñúgesdækic© TIpSarRtUv)aneKniyayfavamanlMnwgenAeBlEdlKµanGñkcUlrYmkñúgTIpSarmanehtuplNaedIm,IEkERb criklkçN³rbs;Kat;.

dUecñHlMnwg CalkçxNÐEdlekItmaneLIgenAkñúgTIpSarmYy eBlEdl brimaNpÁt;pÁg; esµInwg brimaNtRmUvkarenAkñúgéføbc©úb,nñ.

éfølMnwg nigbrimaNlMnwg KWCaéfø nig brimaNénTMnijmYyEdlenAcMnucRbsBVKñaénExSekag pÁt;pÁg; nig ExSekagtRmUvkar.

]TahrN_³ cMeBaHsaMgenAeBlEdlmantMél 1.25$kñúg1lIRt brimaNtRmUvkarmanEt 8 000 lIRt b:ueNÑaH kñúg1Ex b:uEnþedaysartMéléføeFVIeGayGñkpÁt;pÁg;xMRbwgplitrhUtdl;eTA28 000lIRt EdlCaehtu naMeGaybrimaNpÁt;pÁg;elIs brimaNtRmUvkardl;eTA 20 000lIRt. dUecñHGñkpÁt;pÁg;)an bBa©úHtMél eGayenARtwmEt 1$ tMélb:ueNÑHeFVIeGaybrimaNtRmUvkarrbs;GñkTijekIneLIgdl;14 000 lIRt b:uEnþedaytMélcuHefakGñkpÁt;pÁg;k¾bnßybrimaNpÁt;pÁg;Rtwm24 000lIRt brimaNenHKWenAEt elIsdl;eTA 10 000lIRt. Gñklk;k¾)anbBa©úHéfødl; 0.75$ eBlenaHeXIjfaedaytMélkan;Etefak brimaNtRmUvkarekIndl; 20 000lIRt edayELkkarpÁt;pÁg;k¾cuHfymkenARtwm20 000lIRtEdr enAeBlenaHehIyEdleKeXIjfabrimaNéfø 0.75$ ElgERbRbYl. vaCalMnwgTIpSar.

éfø brimaN brimaN PaBelIs b¤ éfø nWg

¬lIRt¦ tRmUvkar pÁt;pÁg; kgVHxat

1.25 8 28 20 ¬PaBelIs¦ Føak;

1.00 14 24 10 ¬PaBelIs¦ Føak;

0.75 20 20 lMnwg enAdEdl

0.5 26 16 -10 ¬kgVHxat¦ ekIn

0.25 32 12 -20 ¬kgVHxat¦ ekIn

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.2

1.4

éfø

brimaN

2- \T§iBlénkarERbRbYlExSekagtRmUvkar nig ExSekagpÁt;pÁg;eTAelIéfø

eyIg)ansikSarYcmkehIyfamanktþamYycMnYnEdleFVIeGay ExSekagtRmUvkar nig ExSekag pÁt;pÁg; rMkilpøas;TIeTArkTItaMgfµI.

2>1> karrMkilExSekagtRmUvkar

P₁

P₀

Q₁

Q₀

D₁

P₀

P₁

Q₀

Q₁

D₀

-tamry³rUbPaB k xagelIeyIgeXIjfa éfø)anekIneLIgenAeBlEdlExSekagtRmUvkarrMkil ecj. xN³Edléfø)anekIneLIg brmaNpÁt;pÁg;ekIneLIg.

-pÞúyBIrUbPaB k rUbPaB x bgðajeGayeXIjfaéfø)anFøak;cuHenAeBlEdlExSekagtRmUvkar rMkilcUl. eBlenaH brimaNpÁt;pÁg;k¾)anfycuHpgEdr.

2>2> karrMkilExSekagpÁt;pÁg;

Q₁

Q₀

P₀

P₁

S₁

S₀

Q₀

Q₁

P₁

P₀

S₀

S₁

-rUb k bgðajfaéføekIneLIgenAeBlEdlExSekagpÁt;pÁg;rMkilcUl ehIyeBlenaHEdr brimaN tRmUvkarfycuH.

-cMeBaHrUb x ExSekagtRmUvkarrMkilecjbNþaleGayéføfycuHCamYyenaHpgEdrbrimaN tRmUvkar ekIneLIg.

¯]TahrN_sRmab;BicarNa³ xageRkamenHmanRBwtþikarN_6. cUrGñkGan ehIyBicarNafaetI manGVIekIteLIgcMeBaHExSekagtRmUvkar nig ExSekagpÁt;pÁg;. kñúg]TahrN_nimYy² sUmBnül;eGay )anl¥itl¥n;faetIExSekagNxøHrMkil ehIyfaetIkarrMkilenaHvab:HBal;dl;éføsmta nig brmaNsmta y:agdUcem:þc.

k-enAqñaM1997 sßanPaBRtCak;kkxøaMg)aneFVIeGaydMNaMenArdæpørIda shrdæGaemrik xUcxatCa TwkR)ak;Gs; 300landuløar. éføénbEnøxøH)aneLIgdl;eTA25PaKryEtmYyGaTitübnÞab;BIPaBRtCak; kk. ]TahrN_és<ekþabmanéfø 1duløa16esn kñúg1KILÚRkamenAéf¶TI17 Exmkra ehIy kñúgéf¶TI24 Exmkra éfø 1duløa40esn. ¬TIpSar³ bEnø¦

x-enABak;kNþalTsSvtSn_qñaM1990 mankMeNIny:agxøaMgkøaéncMnYnkUnEg:tenAshrdæGaemrik KW rhUtdl;eTA76lankUnEg:t. va)aneFVIeGaymankarkat;bnßykan;EteRcIneTA²nUvR)ak;snSMsRmab;kar cUlnivtþn_. karsnSMenHRtUv)anepÞrykeTATijRTBühirBaØvtßúEdlbgáeGaymankarekIneLIgtMél snøwk h‘un. ¬TIpSar³ RTBühirBaØvtßú¦

K-kñúgqñaM1991 sPardæmuIsuIsuIBIkñúgshrdæGaemrik)anGnum½tkMNt;Bnæ10PaKryelIkarlk;én TUkRbNit. CakareqøIytbm©as;TUkxøH)anbnþeRbIR)as;TUkcas;rbs;BYkeKkan;EtyUr. GñkxøHeTotTijTUk BIrdæ)ahamaedIm,IbeBa¢ósBn§. ¬TIpSar³ TUkRbNit¦ BIeRBaHEtkartv:aBIsMNak;GñkplitTUkénTUkRbNit sPa)anelIkElgBn§enHvijkñúgqñaM1993.

X-dMNaMRsUvKwmansar³sMxan;Nas;sRmab;tRmUvkarGaharrUbtßmÖ nig k¾CaGaharRbéBnIpgEdr sRmab;RbeTs\NÐÚensuI. kñúgqñaM1997 PaBraMgs¶Üt stVl¥itcéRg nigvibtþihirBaØvtßúbNþaleGayman karclaclcMeBaHGgárEdlGacrk)an. tMélrbs;vaekIneLIgx<s;y:agxøaMgEdlenAkñúgqñaM1998 CagmYy PaKbYnénCnCati\NÐÚensuI minGacTijGgárRKb;RKan;sRmab;bMeBjesckþIRtUvkarCaRbcaMéf¶. kmµviFI rdæaPi)alkñúgkar]btßmÖGgár KWmin)anRKb;RKan;edIm,IbgáeGayéføGgárRtlb;eTArkkMrit EdlRbCaCnGac manlTæPaBTij)aneLIy. ¬TIpSar³ GgárkñúgRbeTs\NÐÚensuI¦

g-kñúgcugrdUvekþA 1998 ksikrshrdæGaemrikmankarlM)akkñúgkarEsVgrkkmµkrksikmµtamrdUv kaleGay)anRKb;RKan;. ehtuGVI? eRBaHfaFatuGakas El Ninos )aneKobsgát;rdUvRbmUlpl. GñkdaM TMBaMg)ayCUr b:m nig es‘rIu EdlEtgEtRbmUlplkñúgeBlxusKña)anRbkYtRbECgsRmab;kmµkrksikmµ TaMgGs;Kña. CakarbEnßmeTot mankarTb;sáat;y:agxøaMgxøaBIsMNak;Pñak;garCnPasxøÜn )ankat;bnßy nUvlMhUrénkmµkr xusc,ab;mkkñúgshrdæGaemrik. ¬TIpSar³ kmµkrksikmµ ¦

c-ral;buNü Christmas vtßúekµgelgfµIkøayCavtßúTak;Tajy:agxøaMgkøa. kñúgqñaM1997tukátaEdl Tak;Taj eQµaHfa Tickle Me Elmo nigkñúgqñaM1998KW Furby. munéf¶buNüChristmas tukátaTaMgenH KWBi)akkñúgkarrkNas;ehIyvaRtUv)aneKlk;kñúgéfø10dgelIséføFmµtaenAkñúgTIpSarggwt. ]TahrN_ tukáta Furby: Rkumh‘unTigerplittukátaekµgelg rYmCamYynigGñklk;ray)anbegáItnUvcMNab;GarmµN_ CadMbUgcMeBaHtukáta Furby KWb:unµanéf¶munéf¶Thanksgiving b:ueNÑaHedaypSBVpSayfakarplitmankMrit. mYyéf¶bnÞab;BIbuNü Thanksgiving EdlCaéf¶edIrTijTMnijsRmab;buNüChristmas FMCag eKeXIjman mnusSQrCaCYrtaMgBIem:ag2RBwk edIm,ITij Furby. Gñklk;tUctacxøHEdlGacTijtukáta Furby )anlk; vavijenAevlal¶ackñúgtMél300duløasRmab; tukáta FurbymYy. eTaHCaCYbRbTHnUvkgVHxatGñklk;ray nUvrkSatMéldUcEdrkñúgkarpSayBaNiC¢kmµ ehIyGñkplitenAEtbnþkarkMritkñúgkarEbgEck. kaEst)an pSBVpSayGMBIerOgénCYrmnusS nig tMélTIpSarggwtrbs;tukáta Furby )aneFVIeGaymantRmUvkarkan;Et xøaMgcMeBaHtukáta Furby.munéf¶buNüChristmas GñkpÁt;pÁg;)anbegáInkarpÁt;pÁg;tukáta Furby edIm,I bMeBj)annUvtRmUvkarEdlekIneLIg. GtifiCnsMNageBlEdlBYkeKGacTijtukáta Furby kñúgtMélEt 30duløar Etb:unµanéf¶munbuNüChristmas CMnYseGayéfø300duløarkñúgTIpSarggwt. ¬TIpSar³ tukáta Furbies kñúgqñaM1998¦

? សូមធ្វើការផ្គូផ្គង ឧទាហរណ៍ពី ក ដល់ ច ជាមួយនឹងរូបភាពទាំង ៦ក្នុងទំព័របន្ទាប់ ។

Q₁

Q₂

P₀

S₂

S₀

Q₀

S₁

P₂

P₁

rUbPaB 1:

Q₁

P₀

P₁

S₁

S₀

Q₀

rUbPaB 5:

Q_s

Q_e

P₀

P₁

S₁

S₀

Q_D

rUbPaB 3:

Q_Do

P₀

P₁

S₀

S₁

Qs₀

QD₁

D₀

D₁

rUbPaB 4:

Q₁

P₀

P₁

S₀

D₀

Q₁

D₁

rUbPaB 6 :

Q_e

P₀

P₁

S₁

S₀

D₁

rUbPaB 2:

3- karRKb;RKgéførbs;rdæaPi)al

rdæaPi)alGaceFVIGnþraKmn_ kñúúgkrNIEdléfølMnwgTIpSarmankMritx<s;eBk b¤TabeBk eRkam rUbPaBCakarbegáIteGayman éføGtibrma nig éføGb,brma.

3>1> éføGtibrma ( Price Ceiling )

rdæaPi)alGacbegáItéføGtibrmacMeBaHTMnijmYy. éføGtibrmaykCakarluHRtaEtvaRtUvkMNt; TabCagéføTIpSar. eyIgmincaM)ac;kMNt;éføGtibrmaeTebIvax<s;CagéføTIpSar. éføGtibrma )anbegáIt eGaymanPaBelIséntRmUvkar ¬kgVHxat¦ ehIynaMeGayekItmanTIpSarggwt cMeBaHTMnijmYy Edlkñúg enaHTMnijenaHnwgRtUvlk;kñúgéføx<s;CagéføGtibrmaEdlc,ab;kMNt;. cUrBicarNaeTAelIkarRtYtRtaénéfø CYlpÞHEdlekIteLIgna TIRkug):arIs RbeTs)araMg. karRtYtRtaenHKWCaéføGtibrmaEdlkMNt;eday rdæaPi)al)araMgedIm,IrMgab;éføCYlpÞH nigedIm,ICYyTahan)araMgkñúgsm½ysRgÁam. rdæaPi)al)anTb;sáat; éføeGayenARtwmEt 2>50 duløarkñúg1Ex. RbsinebIminkMNt;eTenaHéfønwgeLIgdl; 17 duløarkñúg1Ex.

enHKWCasßanPaBl¥mYysRmab;GñkTaMgLayNaEdlkMBugEsVgrkGaKarsñak;enA b:uEnþvamanrnaMg mYyekIteLIg. ]TahrN_ vamankarxVHxaty:agsem,ImnUvGaKar. etIGVIeTACalT§plénkarRtYtRtaéfø CYl? CalT§plRbCaCnTIRkug):arIseRcInCag 80PaKryKµanbgÁt;pÞal;xøn ehIy20PaKryKµanbNþaj Twks¥at. cab;taMgBIRTBüsRmab;CYlminpþl;R)ak;cMeNj KµanGaKarfµINamYyRtUv)ank¾sageLIg ehIy GaKarEdlmanRsab;k¾min)anCYlCul. manmnusSCaeRcInminGacEsVgrkbnÞb;sRmab;CYl)ankñúgTIRkug ):arIs. bþIRbBn§xøHrs;enACamYy »Buk mþay. GaKarEdlmanRsab;KWRtUv)anEckkñúglkçN³xøH. eBl enaHedIm,I)anbnÞb;CYl manGñkCYlxøH)ansUkm©as;GaKarrhUtdl; 1500duløar. Cayfaehtu sPaBkarN_ )anekIteLIgy:agGaRkk; TIbMputkarRtYtRtaelIéføRtUv)anelIkElg.

Supply

Shortage

Demand

12.5

$17.00

Quantity of apartments

Q_S

Q_D

3>2> éføGb,rma ( Price Floors )

W_min

W_e

Q₂

Q_e

Q₁

eBlxøH neya)ayeBjcitþnigCYyGñkpÁt;pÁg; eBlxøHGtifiCn. éføGb,rma KWCaéføEdlrdæaPi)al dak;kMriteTAelIrebobéføTabbMputRtUv)aneKKit. ]TahrN_énéføGb,rmaKWkMritTabbMputénR)ak;QñÜl. TaMgrdæ nigrdæaPi)alGaemrik)andak;c,ab;kMritTabbMputénR)ak;QñÜl c,ab;EdlbBa¢ak;nUvkMritR)ak;QñÜl TabbMputEdlRkumh‘unmYyRtUvbg;eGaykmµkrmñak;. kñúgqñaM1938 shrdæGaemrik)ankMNt;TabbMputKW 25esn sRmab;mYyem:ag. ehIyvaRtUv)aneKtMeLIgCaeRcIndg rhUtdl;edImTsSvtSn_qñaM2000vaeLIg dl; 6 duløar.

–—

emeronTI4

tRmUvkarTIpSar nig PaByWtrbs;va

I- RbPBénExSekagtRmUvkarTIpSar

តម្រូវការទីផ្សារនៃទំនិញមួយ គឺជាបរិមាណតម្រូវការសរុបនានា នៃគ្រប់អតិថិជនទាំងអស់ទៅ តាមកម្រិតថ្លៃនិមួយៗ។ ឧទាហរណ៍ នៅលើទីផ្សារនៃផ្លែក្រូច មានអតិថិជនបីនាក់ គឺលោក សិដ្ឋ លោក ហួត និងអ្នកនាង ធី នោះមានន័យថាតម្រូវការទីផ្សាររបស់ផ្លែក្រូច គឺស្មើនឹងតម្រូវការរបស់លោក សិដ្ឋ បូក អោយតម្រូវការរបស់លោក ហួត បូកនឹងតម្រូវការរបស់លោក ធី នៅក្នុងថ្លៃផ្សេងៗគ្នា។

	ថ្លៃ្ ក្នុង ១គីឡូ	៦ដុល្លារ	៥	៤	៣	២	១
បរិមាណ តម្រូវការ	សិដ្ឋ	០	០	០.៥	១	២	២.៥
	ហួត	០	០	០	២	៥	៧
	ធី	០	១	២	៣	៥	៦
តម្រូវការសរុប		០	១	២.៥	៦	១២	១៥.៥

I- PaByWtéføéntRmUvkar Price elasticity of demand

RTg;RTayénExSekagtRmUvkarTIpSarelITMnijmYy ERbRbYlBITMnijmYYyeTATMnijmYyeTot nig BITIpSar mYyeTATIpSarmYyeTot. CaBiess ExSekagtRmUvkarERbRbYledaysarPaBrs; énbrimaN tRmUvkarcMeBaHéfø. cMeBaHTMnijxøHkarERbRbYlEtbnþicbnþÜcénéfø naMeGaybrimaNtRmUvkarERbRbYl xøaMg. edIm,Ivas;BIPaBrs;énbrimaNcMeBaHkarERbRbYlénéføGñkesdækic©eRbIrgVas;mYy ehAfa PaByWtéfø éntRmUvkar.

% ERbRbYlénbrimaNtRmUvkar

% ERbRbYlénéfø

PaByWtéføéntRmUvkar =

Q2 – Q1

x 100%

% ERbRbYlénbrimaNtRmUvkar =

P2 – P1

x 100%

% ERbRbYlénéfø =

1- PaByWt nig cMeNaTénExSekag

manPaByWt 5RbePTEdlRtUv)aneKkMNt;eLIg. PaByWtTaMgenaHman³

-yWtxøaMg CaPaByWtmYyEdlBiBN’naGMBITMnak;TMngmYy Edlkar ekIneLIgEtbnþicénéføplitplmYy bNþaleGaybrimaNtRmUvkarsRmab;plitplenaHFøak;dl;sUnü. tMélCaelx KW ∞ .

-yWt KWCatRmUvkarEdl PaKryERbRbYlénbrimaNtRmUvkar FMCag PaKryERbRbYl énéfø. ehIytMélCaelxrbs;vatUcCag -1.

-yWtCaÉkta BiBN’naGMBITMnakTMngmYyEdlkñúgenaH PaKryERbRbYlén brimaNtRmUvkar esµInwg PaKryERbRbYlénéfø. tMélCaelxrbs;vaKWesµI -1.

-Gt;yWt KWCaPaByWtmYy EdlPaKryERbRbYlénbrimaNtRmUvkar tUcCag PaKryERbRbYlénéfø. tMélCaelxrbs;vaKWcenøaHbI 0 eTA -1.

-Gt;yWtesaH BiBN’naGMBIbrimaNtRmUvkarmineqøIytbTalEtesaH cMeBaHkarERbRbYlénéfø. tMélCaelxrbs;vaKw 0.

Elastic

Perfectly Inelastic

Inelastic

Perfectly Elastic

cUlbMeBjkñúgtaragxageRkam
plitpl	% karERbRbYlén éfø ( % ∆_P)	% karERbRbYlén tRmUvkar ( % ∆Q_D)	PaByWt ( % ∆Q_D_÷% ∆P )	RbePTénPaByWt
fñaM GuIsUlIn esvaTUrs½BÞ sac;eKa eck	+10% +10% +10% +10%	0% -1% -10% -30%

lMhat;KNnaPaByWténtRmUvkar

lhat;TI1³ kñúgqñaM2010enH eyIgeXIjfaeBlEdléføsaMgkñúg1lIRt 4000erol brimaNtRmUvkar saMgkñúgRkugPñMeBjKW 900 000 lIRt. b:uEnþenAeBlsaMgeLIgdl; 4500erolkñúg1lIRteXIjfa brimaNtRmUvkarsaMgKWfycuHbnþic mkenARtwmEt 888 000lIRt. cUrKNnarkPaByWténtRmUvkar nig RbePTrbs;va.

lMhat;TI2³ enAEx]sPaeKsegáteXIjfatRmUvkarcMeBaH hamburger ekIneLIgbnÞab;BImankarbBa©úH tMélBI 3duløar mkenARtwmEt2duløa. cMeBaHbrimaNtRmUvkarvijeXIjfaekInBI 5000nM dl; 10 000nM. cUr KNnarkPaByWténtRmUvkar RBmTaMgbBa¢ak;RbePTvapg.

2- PaByWt cMNUlsrub nig tRmUvkar

sRmab;Gñklk;CaeRcIn kardwgnUvPaByWténtRmUvkarmansar³sMxan; BIeRBaHedaysar PaByWtén tRmUvkar GacR)ab;faetIR)ak;cMNUlsrubnwgeLIg b¤k¾cuH enAeBlEdlBYkeKtMelIg b¤k¾kat;bnßyéfø. R)ak; cMNUlsrub EdlGñkpÁt;pÁg;nwgTTYlKWCaéfø EdlBYkeKKitenAeBlEdlBYkeKlk;nUvTMnij. PaByWtR)ab; Gñklk; faGVInwg ekIteLIgcMeBaHcMNUlRbsinebIéføERbRbYl. CaBiess³

-RbsinebItRmUvkarKW yWt (E_D_<-1), karekIneLIgénéfønaMeGayR)akcMNUlsrubfycuH. ¬éfø nig cMNUlsrub pøas;TIkñúgTisedAxusKña¦.

-RbsinebItRmUvkarKW yWtCaÉkta (E_D= 1), karekIneLIgénéfø min)anbNþaleGaycMNUlsrub ERbRbYleLIy.

-RbsinebItRmUvkarKW Gt;yWt (0>E_D>-1), karekIneLIgénéføbegáIncMNUlsrub. ¬éfø nig cMNUlsrubeFVI karpøas;TIkñúgTisedAEtmYy.

E=1

TR constant

Gain revenue

Lost

revenue

E<1

TR ↑

Gain revenue

Lost

revenue

E>1

TR ↓

Gain revenue

Lost

revenue

3- ktþakMNt;PaByWténtRmUvkar

k-PaBEdlGacrk)annUvTMnijCMnYs³ ]TahrN_ GñkcUlcitþTMBarsáekAs‘UEdlKµanCatisá ehIy GñkTijvakñúgtémø 0>25 duløarkñúg 1duM. RbsinebIéføvaeLIgeTAdl; 0>30 duløar GñkRbEhlCa seRmccitþfanwgbþÚrm:akfµIEdlenAkñúgéfø 0>25 duløardEdl. enHmann½yfaCMerIsepSgeTotkñúgTIpSar )anbegáIteGaymankarFøak;cuHy:agxøaMgkñúgxN³EdlmankarekIneLIgénéfø.

x-RBMEdnéneBlevla³ CaktþamYyeTotEdlsMxan;Edr kñúgkarsikSaGMBIPaByWténtRmUvkareFob eTAnwgéfø. CaTUeTAtRmUvkarelITMnijmYy ¬edaymUlehtusmRsb¦ manPaByWtenAkñúgkMLúgry³eBl EvgxøaMgCagkñúgkMLúgry³eBlxøI eRBaHfaGtifiCnGacnwgmanlT§PaBrkTMnijdéTeTotmkCMnYskan;Et eRcInEfmeTotenAeBlEdlTMnijNamYyeLIgéfø xN³EdleBlevlaenaHGUsbnøayyUr.

K-karEckrMElkénfvikasrubkñúgkarcMNay³ CamUldæan fvikakan;EteRcInEdlmnusSmñak; cMNayeTAelIvik½tb½RténTMnijNamYyCak;lak; enAeBleKdwgkan;EteRcIneTA²énkarpøas;bþÚréføenaH dUcenHnwgmankarsµ½RKcitþkan;EteRcIneLIg²edIm,Ipøas;bþÚrTmøab;GaRs½yedaykarpøas;bþÚréfø.

X-kRmiténPaBcaM)ac;³ CamUldæan vtßúEdlmankarcaM)ac;kan;EtxøaMgmankarERbRbYlbnþicbnþÜc enAkñúgtRmUvkareTaHCamankarpøas;bþÜrkñúgéføk¾eday. BIeRBaHEtBYkvamanPaBcaM)ac; edIm,I rs; sb,ay .l. mnusSnwgsµ½RKcitþedIm,ITijBYkvaeTaHCamankarpøas;bþÚrkñúgéføk¾eday.

II- PaByWtrbs;tRmUvkareFobeTAnwgktþadéTeTot

1- PaByWtcMNUléntRmUvkar Income Elasticity of Demand

KWvas;EvgnUvPaBeqøIytbrbs;tRmUvkarcMeBaHkarERbRbYlénéfø.

%PaKryERbRbYlénbrimaNtMrUkar

%PaKryERbRbYléncMnUl

PaByWtcMNUléntRmUvkar =

-RbsinebIrkeXIjfa PaByWténcMNUl FMCag 1 – mann½yfaPaKryERbRbYléntRmUvkar eRcInCagPaKryERbRbYléncMNUl enaHeKcat;TukTMnijenaH CaTMnijRbNit (Luxuries).

-cMeBaHTMnijFmµta (Normal goods) KWCaTMnijEdlmanPaByWténcMNUlticCag 1.

-m:üageTotebIlT§plénPaByWténtRmUvkareXIjGviC¢man enaHKWCa TMnijKuNPaBGn; (Inferior goods) EdlCaTMnijEdlkareRbIR)as;rbs;vafycuHenAeBlcMNUleLIg.

2- PaByWtExVgKñaéntRmUvkar Cross-Price Elasticity of Demand

vas;EvgnUvkareqøIytbénbrimaNtRmUvkarénTMnijmYy eTAnwgkarERbRbYlénéføénTMnijmYyeTot.

%PaKryERbRbYlénbrimaNtMrUkar Y

%PaKryERbRbYlénéfø X

PaByWtExVgKñaéntRmUvkar =

-RbsinebIeXIjfacMelIyviC¢man b¤ FMCagsUnü enaHmann½yfaTMnijenaHCa TMnijCMnYs.

-RbsinebIcMelIyGviC¢man b¤ tUcCagsUnü enaHvaCa TMnijbMeBjeGayKña.

3- PaBénkarpÁt;pÁg; Elasticity of Supply

KWCakarvas;EvgénPaKryERbRbYlénbrimaNpÁt;pÁg;eTAnigPaKryERbRbYlénéfø.

%PaKryERbRbYlénbrimaNpÁt;pÁg;

%PaKryERbRbYlénéfø

PaByWténkarpÁt;pÁg; =

-karpÁt;pÁg; vanwg yWt (elastic) RbsinebIPaByWténkarpÁt;pÁg; FMCag1. mann½yfabrimaN pÁt;pÁg ERbRbYlkñúgPaKryeRcInCagPaKryERbRbYlénéfø.

-Gt;yWt (inelastic) enAeBlEdlPaByWténkarpÁt;pÁg; tUcCag1. mann½yfabrimaN pÁt;pÁg;min ERbRbYleRcIndUckarERbRbYlénéføeT.

–—

emeronTI5

RTwsþItRmUvkarGñkeRbIR)as;

I- \riyabfGñkeRbIR)as;

1- GtifiCn

អតិថិជន គឺជាបុគ្គល ឬគ្រួសារ ដែលទិញទំនិញ ឬសេវាកម្ម ដើម្បីប្រើប្រាស់សម្រាប់បំពេញបំណង ឬសេចក្តីត្រូវការចាំបាច់របស់ពួកគេ។

eyIg)aneronrYcmkehIynUvktþamYycMnYnEdleFVIeGaytRmUvkarERbRbYl ehIyEdlTak;TgeTA nwgkarseRmccitþrbs;RKYsarmYy. CaFmµta munnwgTijrbs;GVImYyRKYsarmYyKat;EtgEtKitBicarNar eTAelIktþamYycMnYn nigGaRs½yelIcMNg;cMNUlcitþrbs;BYkeKpgEdr.

ktþaTaMgenaHrYmman³

-éføénplitpl

-R)ak;cMNUlEdlGacrk)an

-cMnYnRTBüEdlman

-tMélénplitpld¾éTeTot

-cMNUlcitþ

-karrBwgTukcMeBaHR)ak;cMNUl RTBüsm,tþi nig éføTMnij

2- kMhitfvika

cMeBaHRKYsar CaerOykarTijTMnij b¤esvaedIm,ImkbMeBjesckþIRtUvkarrbs;BYkeKEtgEtCYb RbTHnUv kMhitCanic© kñúgenaHrYmmankMhitfvika EdlCaktþacMbgEdlraraMgkarTijrbs;BYkeK. kMhitfvika rYmman R)ak;cMNUl RTBüsm,tþi nigéføénplitplenaH. kMhitfvika EdlCYbRbTH eday RKYsarmYyKWCalT§plcMbgmkBIkMritEdldak;BIxageRkAedayTIpSarmYy b¤eRcIn. ]TahrN_ kñúgTIpSarRbkYtRbECg RKYsarKat;minGacRtYtRtaelIéfø)aneT BYkeKRtUvEtTijTMnijenAkñúgéfø Edl kMNt;eLIgedayTIpSar. b:uEnþRKYsarmYyGacmankarRtYtRtaxøH²eTAelIcMNUlrbs;BYkeK. smaCik RKYsarenaHGaceRCIserIsfaetI RtUveFVIkar b¤mYyedksuI ehIyBYkeKeBlxøHGacseRmcfaetI eFVIkar b:unµan em:agkñúg1éf¶ ehIynigetIeFVIkargarb;unµanmux?

eTaHCay:agNak¾eday kMhitekItmankñúgTIpSarBlkmµEdr. R)ak;ExEdlsmaCikRKYsar TTYl)an KWeTAtamGRtaTIpSarR)ak;Exbc©úb,nñ. ehIyfaetIkargareRcInb:uNÑa enAkñúgRbeTsenaHman.

3- TsSnaTan én GtßRbeyaCn_ ( The Concept of Utility )

manviTüasaRsþepSg²EdlBnül;faetI ehtuGVI)anCamnusSeFVIGVIEdlBYkeKeFVI?. ]TahrN_ elak Freudian EdlCaGñkcitþviTüamYyrUb)anniyayfa eyIgeFVIGVIEdlBYkeyIgeFVIeRBaHEtman TMnas;mYyenAxagkñúgxøÜneyIg. GñkcitþviTüaxøHeTotfavaCakarEsVgrkkaryl;RBmGMBIxøÜnrbs;eyIg eyIgcg;)ankaryl;RBm. Gñkesdækic©eCOfaenHCamUlehtud¾sMxan; b:uEnþCMTas;faRbsinebIeyIgcg; )ankarviPaKmYyEdlsamBaØssRmab;edaHRsaybBaða karBnül;d¾Bi)akTaMgenHTMngRbEhlCa eFVI eGayeyIgRcbUlRcbl;minxan. sRmab;Gñkesdækic©mancMelIymYyKW plRbeyaCn_pÞal;xøÜn. mnusS eFVIGVI²edIm,IRbeyaCn_pÞal;xøÜn. ehtuGVI)anCaeKminykluyEdlsnSM)anbnþicmþg²mkTijGgáTukpÞH EbrCaykluyeTAcMNayelI ePaCnIydæanéfø²? Rsaebor? b¤k¾sRmab;mNÐl;kMsanþeTAvij?. b:uEnþ niyayedayxøIKWIBYkeKeFVIGVI²edIm,I karsb,aypÞal;xøÜnrbs;BYkeK.

\LÚvenHcUrKitfaehtuGVI)anCaeyIgTijGVIEdleyIgTij?. karviPaKénCMerIsbuKÁlrbs;Gñk esdækic© cab;epþImCamYyesckþIGHGagfabuKÁlTaMgLayBüayameFVIGVIedIm,Ikarsb,ayeBjmYyCIvit rbs;BYkeK. dUecñHedIm,IviPaKCMerIs)an eyIgRtUvvas;EvgnUvkarsb,ay b¤ esckþIeBjcitþ.

enAstvtSn_TI19 Gñkesdækic©Gg;eKøs eQµaHfa Jeremy Bentham )ansresrGMBI ]bkrN_ mYyehAfa “ Utilometer ” EdlGacvas;nUvrlkxYrk,al)an ehIydwgnUvcMnYnénesckþI eBjcitþ Edl mnusS TTYl)anBIkareRbIR)as; b¤eFVI GVImYy. ]bkrN_enaHdUcCaETm:UEm:tEdlbgðajBIkMrit kMedAfab:unµanGgSar b:uEnþ Utilometer bgðajCa util EdlmkBIBaküfa Utility mann½yfaRbeyaCn_ eRbIR)as;. eTaHCay:agNak¾edayrhUtmkdl;sBVéf¶enH Kµan]bkrN_rebobenHekIteLIgeLIy.

CalT§pleTaHbICaKµanm:asuInEdlGacvas;EvgnUvesckþIeBjcitþk¾eday k¾Gñkesdækic©)anyk eKalKMniténGtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;enHedIm,IbgðajBIesckþIeBjcitþEdlmnusS)anmkBIkar eRbIR)as; b¤eFVIGVImYy.

CacugeRkayeyIgGacsnµt;faeKaledArbs;GtifiCnkñúgkareRbIR)as;KWedIm,I)anRbeyaCn_ eRbIR)as; (utility) x<s;bMput. mann½yfaTTYl)ancMnYnCaGtibrmaén util .

GtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;srub Total Utility: sMedAeTAelIesckþIeBjcitþsrub EdlmnusS mñak;TTYl )anBIkareRbIR)as; plitplmYy.

GtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;bEnßm Marginal Utility: sMedAeTAelIesckþIeBjcitþEdlmnusSmñak; TTYl)an BIkareRbIR)as; mYyÉktabEnßmeTot énplitplmYy. ]TahrN_ júaMKuyTav10can)an TTYl GtßRbeyaCn_ 4700 util. snµt;fakareRbIR)as;9can dMbUgTTYl)an 4697 util ehIymYy can cug eRkay)an 3 util bEnßmeTot. dUcenH4700 KWCaGtßRbeyaCn_srub nwg 3 KWCa GtßRbeyaCn_ bEnßménkarjúaMKuyTavcancugeRkay.

]TahrN_ faelakkuuyKat;cUlcitþTTYlTannM PIhSa Nas;. éf¶enHKat;mansMNag)an TTYl b½NÑbriePaKeday\tKitéfø b:uEnþvaGnuBaØatieGaycUlhag)an1em:agb:ueNÑaH. taragxag eRkambgðaj BITMnak;TMngrvagcMNitnMPIhSaEdlelakkuyjúaM eTAnigGtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;srub nigGtßRbeyaCn_ eRbIR)as;bEnßm.

cMnYncMNitnMPIhSa	GtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;srub	GtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;bEnßm
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9	14 26 36 44 50 54 56 56 54	14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 -2

cUlemIleTAkñúgtaragxagelI. eyIgeXIjfa GtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;srubEdl)anmkkarjúaMnM PIhSarbs;Kat;eLIgrhUtdl;x<s;bMputRtwmcMNitTI7nigTI8. karTTYlTancMNitTI7eFVIeGayKat;sb,ay Cag júaMcMNitTI6 EdlCacMNiteFVIeGayKat;sb,ayCagjúaMcMNitTI5.l. b:uEnþry³eBl1em:agsRmab; nMPIhSa8cMnit eFVIeGayKat;Elgsb,aynwgvaehIy. eRkaymkcMNitTI9 )ankat;bnßyGtßRbeyaCn_ eRbIR)as;srubrbs;Kat;BI56 util mkenARtwm 54 util ehIyGtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)asbEnßm GviC¢man. Edl mann½yfaebIKat;bnþjúaMcMNitTI9enaH Kat; nwgxatbg;.

Total Utility

Marginal Utility

Total Utility

Marginal Utility

4- karEbgEckcMNUlrvagTMnijBIr

PaKeRcInénBYkeyIgRbQmmuxkñúgkarseRmccitþTij EdlsµúKsµajCagelakkuyRbQmmux eTAeTot. kñúgenaHeyIgminEmnEteFVIesckþIseRmccitþTijEtTMnijmYyeT EtRbEhlCaeRcIn. m:üageTot eyIgRtUvcMNaycMeBaHÉktabEnßmnimYy²énTMnijTaMgenaH.

k- eKalkarN_énkareRCIserIsRbkbedayvicarNBaØaN

The Principle of Rational Choice

eKalkarN_énkareRCIserIsRbkbedayvicarNBaØaN ³ cMNayluyrbs;GñkelITMnijTaMgLay Na Edlpþl;dl;GñknUvGtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;bEnßmkñúg1duløareRcInbMput.

MU_x

P_x

MU_y

P_y

if > eRCIserIseRbIR)as;mYyÉktabEnßmén X

MU_x

P_x

MU_y

P_y

if < eRCIserIseRbIR)as;mYyÉktabEnßmén Y

edaydak;bBa©ÚlGtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;bEnßm nig éføénTMnijcUleTAkñúgrUbmnþenH GñkEtgetGac seRmccitþfaetITMnijNamYyEdlCMrujTwkcitþxøaMgedIm,IeRbIR)as;. eyIgRtUveRbIR)as; mYyEdlpþl; GtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;bEnßmkñúg1duløarx<s;bMput.

x- Gtibrmakmµ GtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;

eBlEdlGRtaénGtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;bEnßmcMeBaHéføénTMnijBIresµIKña GñkkMBugEteFVIeGay GtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;dl;kMritGtibrma.

MU_x

P_x

MU_y

P_y

* ]TahrN_énGtibrmakmµGtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;

kñúg]TahrN_enH]bmafaeyIgmanluy 7duløarsRmab;cMNayeTAelIkaer:meck nigkaer:m sUkULa EdleyIgcUlcitþTaMgBIr. kaer:meckkñúg1Ekv 1duløar nig kaer:msUkULa1Ekv 2duløar. kñúgtaragGñk eXIjfaeKalkarénkarkat;bnßyGtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;bEnßmsßitkñúgskmµPaB. GtßRbeyaCn_bEnßm EdleyIgTTYlBITMnijTaMgBIrmuxfycuHenAeBlEdleyIgeRbIR)as;vaeRcIn. GtßRbeyaCn_bEnßmkøayCa GviC¢manbnÞab;BIjúaMGs;kaer:msUkULa5Ekv nig kaer:meck6Ekv.

kaer:msUkULa				kaer:meck
Q	TU	MU	MU/P	Q	TU	MU	MU/P
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7	0 20 34 44 47 47 42 32	20 14 10 3 0 -5 -10	10 7 5 1.5 0 -2.5 -5	0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7	0 29 46 53 55 56 56 52	29 17 7 2 1 0 -4	29 17 7 2 1 0 -4

kUeLansMxan;sRmab;karseRmccitþKWkUeLan MU/P. BYkvaR)ab;GñkGMBI MU sRmab;1duløar Edl cMNayelIvtßúnimYy². edayeKalkarN_xagelIEdleyIgeRCIserIsTMnijEdlman MUkñúg1duløar x<s;CageyIgGackMNt;y:agelOnnUvCMerIsd¾RbesIrbMput.

cUrcab;epþImedayBicarNafaetIeyIgKYreFVIGVICadMbUgCamYynwgluy2duløa. CakarBitNas;KWeyIg RKan;EtjúaMkaer:meckb:ueNÑaH. ehIyvaGacpþl;eGayeyIg 46 util (29+17) eRbobCamYynwg 20 util RbsinebIeyIgcMNay2duløarenHelIkaer:msUkULa. cuHcMENk2duløabnÞab;mkeTotrbs;eyIg? CafµImþg eTotvac,as;Nas;Edl 10 util kñúg1duløarBIkaer:msUkULavaRbesIrRKb;RKan;Cag 7 uitl kñúg1duløar EdlTTYl)anBI kaer:meck. dUcenHeyIgTij kaer:msUkULa1Ekv nig kaer:meck2EkvCamYynwgluy 4duløa.

\LÚvcUlBicarNacMeBaHluyEdlenAsl;. MU/PsRmab;kaer:msUkULaEkvTI2 KW7 uitl ehIy MU/P sRmab;EkvTI3énkaer:meckk¾ 7 uitl Edr. dUecñHeyIgGaccMNayluy2duløarbnÞab;eToteTAelI rbs; TaMgBIr RbsinebIhagkaer:mnwglk;eGayeyIgnUvkaer:msUkULaknøHEkv. b:uEnþhagminRBmlk;eT dUecñH eyIgRtUvEteFVIkareRCIserIsmYyrvagkaer:meck2EkvbEnßm nig kaer:msUkULamYyEkvbEnßm sRmab; luy 3duuløaEdrenAsl;. edayMU/Pénkaer:mEkvTI4Et 2 uitl vaeFVIeGaymanGarmµN_faeyIg RtUv cMNay 2duløarenHeTAelIkaer:msUkULa. dUecñHeyIg)anjúaMkaer:meckGs;2Ekv nig kaer:msUkULa2Ekv

ehIyeyIgenAsl;1duløareTotedIm,IcMNay.

\LÚvKity:agdUcemþcMeBaH1duløarcugeRkayrbs;eyIg? RbsinebIeyIgcMNayvaelIkaer:meckEkv TIbI eyIgTTYl)an 7 util bEnßm. RbsinebI hagkaer:menAEtrkSaeKalCMhr dEdrcMeBaHkarlk;sRmab; kaer:mmYyEkv enHKWCakareRCIserIsedayxøÜnÉgrbs;BYkeyIgedaysarEteyIgenAsl;Et1duløar ehIy kaer:msUkULalk;kñúgéfø2duløar. b:uEnþ]bmafahagkaer:meKRBmlk;kaer:msUkULaknøHEkvkñúgtMél 1 duløar etIeyIgKYrEtTijvab¤eT? cMelIyKWeT. knøHEkvénkaer:msUkULapþl;eGayeyIgEt 5 util kñúgduløa b:ueNÑaH xN³Edrkaer:meckEkvTIbIpþl;dl;eyIg 7 uitl kñúg1duløar. dUecñHeyIgcMNay1duløarcugeRkay eTAelIkaer:meck.

CamYyCMerIsenHeyIgCYbnUvmanPaBlMnwg GtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;bEnßmkñúg1duløarKWdUcKñasRmab; TMnijTaMgBIr ehIyeyIgkMBugEteFVIGtibrmakmµGtßRbeyaCn_. GtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;srubrbs;BYkeyIg KW 34 util )anmkBIkaer:msUkULa2Ekv nig 53 util )anmkBIkaer:meck3Ekv EdleFVIeGay GtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;srubesµInwg 87 util.

ehtuGVICMerIsTaMgBIrenHeFVIeGaymankarcab;GarmµN_? BIeRBaHva)anpþl;eGayeyIgnUvcMnYneRcIn bMputénGtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;srubsRmab;karcMNay7duløarrbs;eyIg. eyIg)aneFVItamc,ab;én Gtibrimakmµ GtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;edaysMrYlCMerIsrbs;GñkrhUtdl;GtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;bEnßm kñúg 1duløardUcKña. CMerIsenHeFVIeGayGtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;bEnßmkñúúg1duløarrvag EkvcugeRkayén kaer:m sUkULa nig kaer:m eckesµIKña. GtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;bEnßmEdleyIgTTYl)anBIEkvcugeRkayénkaer:m sUkULaKW³

= = 7

GtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;bEnßmkñúg1duløarEdleyIg )anBIEkvcugeRkayénkaer:meckKW³

= = 7

MU/P sRmab;CMerIsnimYy²KWesµIKña dUecñHeyIgminGaceFVIGVIEdll¥RbesIrCagenHeLIy.

II- GtßRbeyaCn_ nigtRmUvkar

សញ្ញាណរបស់អត្ថប្រយោជន៍ វាជួយពន្យល់ដែរថាហេតុដូចម៉្តេចបានជាថ្លៃ និងបរិមាណតម្រូវការមាន ទំនាក់ទំនងផ្ទុយគ្នា។ តារាងខាងក្រោមនឹងបង្ហាញពីអត្ថប្រយោជន៍ និងអត្ថប្រយោជន៍បន្ថែមនៃទំនិញពីរ ដែលគេ ទិញ ក្នុងពេលដែលមានប្រាក់ចំណូល ២០ដុល្លារ។

ភីសា	TU	MU	MU/P (P=4$)	បឺហ្គឺ	TU	MU	MU/P (P=4$)
០	០	-	-	០	០	-	-
១	២០	........	........	១	១២	........	........
២	៣៦	........	........	២	២២	........	........
៣	៤៨	........	........	៣	៣០	........	........
៤	៥៦	........	........	៤	៣៦	........	........
៥	៦០	........	........	៥	៤០	........	........
៦	៥៦	........	........	៦	៤២	........	........
៧				៧	៤០	........	........

1- eKalkarN_énkarkat;bnßyGtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;bEnßm

Principle of Diminishing Marginal Utility

\LÚvcUlBicarNaTMrg;énExSekagTaMgBIrxagelIeGay)anRbugRby½tñ³ etIBYkvakMBugR)ab;GVIxøHdl; eyIgGMBICMerIsrbs;mnusS? dUcEdreyIgeXIjkñúgrUbehIyfaGtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;bEnßmEdlelakkuy TTYlBIcMNitbEnßmnimYy²énnMPIhSaKWfycuH. Gñkesdækic©eCOfaTMrg;énExSekagTaMgenH BiBN’nay:ag c,as;GMBIKMrUénkarsb,ayrbs;mnusS. BYkeKehAKMrUenaHfa eKalkarN_énkarkat;bnßyGtßRbeyaCn_ eRbIR)as;bEnßm³

ebIGñkeRbIR)as;TMnijmYyeRcIn bnÞab;BIcMnucxøH GtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;bEnßmEdlTTYl )anBIÉkta bEnßmnimYy²énTMnijmYyfycuHenAeBlEdleRbIR)as;ÉktabEnßmenaH.

]TahrN_RbsinebIGkñmanm:UtUmYy Gñksb,aycitþCagKµanm:UtUCiH. RbsinebIeyIgmanm:UtUBIreyIg kan;Etsb,aycitþCagmun b:uEnþminEmneTVrmYyCaBIreT. enHehIyEdlCaeKalkarN_énkarkat;bnßy GtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as;bEnßm.

kt;sMKal;faeKalkarN_énkarkat;bnßyGtßRbeyaCn_bEnßmmin)anniyayfaGñkminsb,aynwg karEdleRbIR)as;TMnijmYyeRcIneT vabBa¢ak;edaysamBaØfaebIGñkeRbIR)as;TMnijmYyeRcIn GñkTTYl)an esckþIeBjcitþ BIÉktabEnßmticCagmYyEdleyIgeRbIR)as;mun.

2- \T§iBlcMNUl nig TMnijCMnYs

អត្ថប្រយោជន៍ដែលខិតទៅរកតម្រូវការ បញ្ជាក់នូវវិធីពីរយ៉ាងនៃការប្រែប្រួលនៃថ្លៃ ដែលអាចមានឥទ្ធិពល ទៅលើបរិមាណតម្រូវការគឺ ឥទ្ធិពលចំណូល និងទំនិញជំនួស។ ឥទ្ធិពលចំណូល គឺជាការប្រែប្រួលបិរមាណតម្រូវការ ដែលបណ្តាលមកពីការប្រែប្រួលថ្លៃ ដែលផ្តល់អោយអ្នកប្រើប្រាស់កើតឡើងនូវចំណូលជាក់ស្តែងថែមទៀត ទោះជា ប្រាក់ចំណូលមិនប្រែប្រួលក៏ដោយ។ បើថ្លៃនៃទំនិញមួយថយចុះ គឺមានន័យថាអ្នកដែលទិញក្នុងបរិមាណដដែល ចំណាយទាបជាងមុន។ ចំពោះទំនិញធម្មតា គឺគេទិញក្នុងបរិមាណច្រើនជាងមុន និងចំពោះទំនិញអន់គុណភាព គឺគេ ទិញតិចជាងមុន។

ឥទ្ធិពលទំនិញជំនួស គឺជាការប្រែប្រួលបរិមាណតម្រូវការ ដោយសារថ្លៃទំនិញជំនួសប្រែប្រួល ដែលមាន ទំនាក់ទំនងថ្លៃទៅនឹងទំនិញដទៃទៀត។ ការថយចុះនៃថ្លៃធ្វើអោយទំនិញនេះថោកជាងបើធៀបទៅនឹងទំនិញដទៃ ទៀត។ អ្នកប្រើប្រាស់មានទិន្នាការទិញថែមចំពោះទំនិញមានថ្លៃទាប ហើយបន្ថយការទិញទំនិញដទៃទៀត។ ប្រសិន បើថ្លៃសាច់គោថយចុះធៀបទៅនឹងថ្លៃសាច់មាន់ នោះអ្នកប្រើប្រាស់នឹងជំនួសសាច់មាន់ដោយសាច់គោវិញ នេះហៅ ថា ឥទ្ធិពលទំនិញជំនួស ហើយមិនដូចឥទ្ធិពលចំណូលទេ ដែលនៅថ្លៃធ្លាក់ចុះ គឺជានិច្ចកាលធ្វើអោយកើនឡើងនូវ បរិមាណតម្រូវការ។

ឥទ្ធិពលចំណូល និងឥទ្ធិពលទំនិញជំនួស ធ្វើអោយមានឥទ្ធិពលទិសដូចគ្នាចំពោះទំនិញធម្មតា ដោយសារ ថ្លៃទាបជាងនឹងបង្កើនចំណូលជាក់ស្តែង ហើយធ្វើអោយទំនិញមានទំនាក់ទំនងមានថ្លៃថោកជាង។

3- PaBelIsrbs;GñkeRbIR)as;

មានការជជែកជាច្រើនលើករួចរាល់ហើយថា ទីផ្សារបង្ខំពួកយើងអោយលាតត្រដាងយ៉ាងធំធេងអំពីចំណូល ចិត្តផ្ទាល់ខ្លួនរបស់ពួកយើង។ ភាពលើសរបស់អក្នប្រើប្រាស់ គឺជាភាពខុសគ្នារវាងថ្លៃអតិបរិមាដែលអ្នកទិញ ចង់ចំណាយចំពោះទំនិញមួយ (ផ្អែកលើការទទួលបានអត្ថប្រយោជន៍បន្ថែម) និងថ្លៃទីផ្សារបច្ចុប្បន្នរបស់វា។

បរមតិនៃត្បូងពេជ្យនិងទឹក

v ទឹក គឺសម្បូរ

v ប្រសិនបើថ្លៃទឹកស្មើនឹងសូន្យ អ្នកប្រាកដជាថា ទឹក គ្មានតម្លៃទេ។ ប៉ុន្តែតាមពិតអតិថិជនផ្តល់នូវភាព លើសនៃអតិថិជនយ៉ាងធំពីការប្រើប្រាស់ទឹក។

v អតិថិជនស្ម័គ្រចិត្តទូទាត់ខ្ពស់ជាងឆ្ងាយពីថ្លៃសូន្យ។

មេរៀននៃបរមតិនៃត្បូងពេជ្យនិងទឹក គឺថា៖

ក.វត្ថុដែលមានតម្លៃបំផុតក្នុងការប្រើប្រាស់គ្មានតម្លៃ ឬក៏មានតម្លៃតិចតួចក្នុងការដោះដូរ។

ខ. វត្ថុដែលមានតម្លៃបំផុតក្នុងការដោះដូរ ជាញឹកញយគ្មានតម្លៃ ឬក៏មានតម្លៃតិចតួចក្នុងការប្រើប្រាស់.

—emeronTI6

RTwsþIplitkmµ

cMeBaHkarviPaKkarpÁt;pÁg; KWmankarsµúRKsµajCagkarviPaKGMBItRmUvkar. dMeNIrkarpÁt;pÁg; dMbUg RbCaCnpþl;ktþaplitkmµrbs;BYkeKdl;TIpSarktþaplikmµ. bnÞab;mkktþaplitkmµRtUv)anbMElgeday shRKaseGayeTACaTMnijEdlGtifiCncg;)an. dUecñH plitkmµ KWCakarpøas;bþÚrktþaplitkmµ eGay eTACa TMnij b¤ esva.

I- plitkmµ

plitkmµKWCadMeNIrkarEdlktþaplitkmµRtUv)anRbmUlpþúMbMElg nigbegáItCaplitpl.

plikmµminEmnsRmab;EtRkumh‘uneT³ eyIgRtUvyl;faplitkmµ nigskmµPaBplitminEmn sRmab;EtRkumh‘unÉkCneT. RKYsark¾Bak;B½n§kñúgkarbMElgktþaplitkmµ eGaykøayCavtßúmanRbeyaCn_ Edr. ]TahrN_³ kargarsYnc,ar b¤k¾ kareFVIsYnbEnøedayxøÜnÉg.

shRKasCMnYjÉkCnvaxusKñaBIGñkplitEdlCa RKYsar nigrdæaPi)al KWedayeKalbMNg rbs;BYkeK. shRKasekIteLIgenAeBlEdlmnusSmñak; b¤mYyRkum seRmcfaplitTMnij b¤esva edIm,IbMeBjtRmUvkar. BYkeKBak;B½n§ kñúgplitkmµBIeRBaHBYkeKGaclk;plitplrbs;BYkeK)anéfø CagéføedImplitpl.

kñúgcMeNamRkumh‘unTaMgGs;ekIteLIg edIm,IR)ak;cMeNjb:uEnþvamanPaBxusKñaCaeRcIn. lkçN³ rbs;shRKasvaxusKñaedaysarkarerobcMépÞkñúg nigedaysarTMnak;TMngCamYynwg Rkumh‘unEdlvaRbkYt RbECg. etImanKURbkYtRbECgb:unµan?etIBYkvamankaRbkYtRbECgy:agdUcemþc? \LÚvenHeyIgBicarNa GMBIkarRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkitü³

karRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkitü (Perfect Competition): karRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkitüekIteLIg kñúg]sSahkmµEdlmanshRKastUc²CaeRcIn plitnUvplitpldUcKñaebHbiT. kñúgkarRbkYtRbECg edaysuRkitüKµanshRKasNamYyEdlRtYtRtaéføeT. kñúgn½ym:üageTotshRKasNamYyminGacman \T§iBlelItMélTIpSarénplitplrbs;xøÜn b¤k¾éføénvtßúFatuedImEdlvaGacTij. criklkçN³sMxan;enH mansmiµitkmµ2sMxan;. TI1 shRKasRbkYtRbECgmanshRKasCaeRcIn EdlshRKasnimYy²manTMhMtUc²Rbhak;RbEhlKña. TI2 ral;shRKasplitnUvplitpldUcKña

Edlmann½yfaplitplrbs;shRKasmYyminGacEbgEcgBIptplshRKasd¾éT)aneT.

shRKaskñúg]sSahkmµEdlRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkitümin)aneFVIeGayxusKñanUvplitpl ehIy k¾min)aneFVIesckþIseRmccitþGMBIéføEdr. BYkeKykéføEdl)ankMNt;edayc,ab;énkarpÁt;pÁg; nigtRmUvkar ehIyBYkeKRKan;EtseRmccitþfaRtUv plitb:unµan nigplity:agdUcem:þc?

rUbPaBeRkamenHxagsþaMbgðajBIeBatlk;kñúgtMél 250erol kñúg 1KILÚRkam ehIyrUbPaBxag sþaMbgðajBItRmUvkareBat. RbsinebIksikrcg;tMeLIgéføeBatBYkeKnwglk;eBatmindac;Tal;EtesaH.

250

Price

a. The market

b. A representative competitive firm

The equilibrium market price

250

quantity of corn per year

quatity of corn per year

1- TMrg;énGgÁPaBGaCIvkmµ

manTMrg;sMxan;bIrbs;GgÁPaBGaCIvkmµsBVéf¶enH kñúgenaHrYmman Rkumh‘unÉkkmµsiT§ Rkumh‘un shkmµsiT§ nig saCIvkmµ.

Rkumh‘unÉkkmµsiT§ (Sole Proprietorship)

vaCaTMrg;samBaØbMputénGaCIvkmµenAelIsklelakeyIgenH. Rkumh‘unÉkkmµsiT§ KWCaCMnYjmYy EdlCakmµsiT§ nig dMeNIrkaredaymnusSEtmñak;. eTaHCa vaCaGgÁPaBGaCIvkmµPaKeRcInbMput nig EdlrkR)ak;cMeNj)aneRcInk¾eday k¾vaCaGgÁPaBGaCIvkmµEdlmanTMhMtUcCageK bMput.

Rkumh‘unshkmµsiT§ (Partnership)

Rkumh‘unshkmµsiT§ KWCaCMnYjmYyEdlcUlrYmedaym©as; BIr b¤ eRcInGñk. vamancMnucxøaMg nig cMnucexSayCaeRcIndUcnwg Rkumh‘unÉkkmµsiT§. vamanBIrRbePTKW Rkumh‘unshkmµsiT§TUeTA nig Rkumh‘un shkmµsiT§mankMrit.

saCIvkmµ (Corporations)

saCIvkmµ KWCaTMrg;mYyénCMnYjEdlTTYlsÁal;edayc,ab;faCaGgÁPaBeBjlkçN³c,ab; ehIymannUvral;siT§TaMgGs;EdlbuKÁlmñak;man. sßanPaBenHvapþl;dl;saCIvkmµnUvsiT§edIm,I Tij nig lk;nUvrbs;kmµsiT§, siT§iedIm,IcuHkic©snüaRsbc,ab; nig GaceFVIBakübNþwgdl;buKÁld¾éT ehIyk¾ GacRtUvbuKÁld¾éTbþwgvij)anEdr.

2- kMér nig éføedImesdækic©

shRKasedIrtYnaTIdUcKñakñúgRTwsþIénkarpÁg;pÁg; dUcEdlbuKÁleFVIkñúgRTwsþIéntRmUvkar. karxusKñaKW Rtg;buKÁleFVIGtibrimakmµGtßRbeyaCn_eRbIR)as; b:uEnþRkumh‘uneFVIGtibrimakmµkMér. GVIeTACakMér? kMér Ca PaBxusrvagcMNUlsrub nig éføedImsrub³

kMér (Profit) = cMNUlsrub (Total revenue) – éføedImsrub (Total cost)

GRtacMNUlFmµtaBIkarvinieyaK (Normal Rate of Return): KWCaGRtaEdlRKb;lµmedIm,IbMeBj citþm©as; nigGñkvinieyaK. vaKYrEtesµInwgkarR)ak;EdlTTYl)anBImUlb½RtrdæaPi)al. RbsinebIGRta cMNUlFøak;eRkamkMritFmµtavaCakarBi)ak b¤k¾minGaceTArYcsRmab;GñkRKb;RKgedIm,IrkFnFan sRmab; Tij \mUlFnfµI.

cUrcaMfaeBlEdlFnFanRtUv)aneRbIedIm,IvinieyaK vaekIteLIgnUvtMélkalanuvtþPaBmYy. CMnYs eGaykarykluyeTATij pÞHElVgmYysRmab;lk;mU:tU eyIgGacykluyenaHeTATijCamUlb½RtrdæaPi)al b¤k¾dak;kñúgFnaKarEdlGac pþl;karR)ak;dl;eyIg)an.

kMértamEbbKNenyü³ kñúgKNenyücMNUlsrubesµInwgéfølk; KuNnwgbrimaNEdllk;)an srub dUecñHRbsinebIRkumh‘unmYylk;)anRkvil1000KUr kñúg1KUr5duløar naMeGaycMNUlsrubrbs;vaKW 5000duløa. sRmab;KNenyükrmYyrUb éføedImsrubKWR)ak;QñÜlpþl;dl;kmµkr éføCYlEdlpþl;eGay m©as;pÞH karR)ak;EdlsgGñkeGayx©I nig karcMNayCak;EsþgcMeBaHktþaplitkmµd¾éTeTot. RbsinebI shRKaspþl;R)ak;Ex 2000duløardl;kmµkrEdleFVIRkvil nig 1000duløar sRmab;vtßúFatuedIm dUecñH éføedImsrub KW 3000duløar.

kñúgkarkMNt;GVIedIm,IbBa©ÚleTAkñúgcMNUlsrub nig cMNaysrub KNenyükrepþatelI cMNUlCak;Esþg nig éføedImCak;Esþg (explicit revenue and explicit costs). enaHeRBaHEtBYkva RtUvEtmankarvas;EvgCak;EsþgEdldak;cUleTAkñúgr)aykarN_cMNUlrbs;shRKas. tamry³ehtupl enHGñkGacrk R)ak;cMeNjKNenyü (accounting profit) ) )anedayykcMNUlCak;EsþgdknwgéføedIm Cak;Esþg. dUcenHR)ak;cMeNjKNenyü rbs;Rkumh‘unplitRkvilKW 2000duløar.

kMértamEbbesdækic©³ Gñkesdækic©manviFankarvas;EvgEbøkcMeBaHcMNUl nig éføedIm dUcenHman viFIvas;EvgEbøkcMeBaH R)ak;cMeNj. Gñkesdækic©rab;bBa©ÚleTAkñúgcMNUl nig éføedIm TaMgéfø nigcMNUl Cak;Esþg nig minCak;Esþg. BYkeKKNnarkR)ak;cMeNj edayykR)ak;cMNUlCak;EsþgbUknigminCak; Esþg dknig éføedImCak;EsþgbUknigminCak;Esþg.

GVIeTACaéføedImminCak;Esþg nigcMNUlminCak;Esþg (implicit cost and implicit revenue)?

éføedImminCak;Esþgrab;bBa©ÚlnUvtMélkalanuvtþPaBénktþaplitkmµEdlpþl;edaym©as;énCMnYj. Rbsin ebIm©as;)ancMNayR)ak; 15000duløaredIm,ITij ]bkrN_ nigsþg;lk;mYysRmab;dMeNIrkarRkumh‘unlk; Rkvil EdlluyTaMgenaHRbsinebIykmkTijsBaØaNbNÑnwg)anTTYl10PaKrymkvij. dUcenH m©as; nwgTTYl)an 1500duløarRbsinebIKat;ykluyenaHeTATijsBaØaNbNÑ vaKWCaéføedImminCak;Esþgénkar eFVICMnYj nwgRtUv)aneKbBa©ÚleTAkñúgéføedImmYy. sRmab;Gñkesdækic© éføedImsrub KWesµInwg plbUkrvagkarcMNay Cak;EsþgcMeBaHktþaplitkmµ nig tMélkalanuvtþPaBénktþaEdlpþl; edaym©as;shRKas. éføedImsrub énshRKasplitRkvil KWesµI 3000duløarkñúgéføedImCak;Cak; EsþgbUknwg 1500duløar énéføedImmin Cak;Esþg . CaTUeTAéføedImminCak;EsþgRtUvEt):anRbmaN nig minGacvas;)anedaypÞal;eTedayehtu enHehIyKNenyükrminrab;bBa©Úlva.

cMNUlminCak;Esþgrab;bBa©ÚlTaMgkarekIneLIgkñúgtMélénRTBüskmµ. ebIRkumh‘unplitRkvil mankEnøglk;mYy EdléføTIpSarekIneLIgBI10 000 eTA 11 000duløar. TsSnaTanesdækic© énR)ak;cMNUlsrub KWrab;bBa©Úl1000duløarEdlekInBIkEnøglk; faCaEpñkmYyéncMNUl srub. sRmab; Gñkesdækic© cMNUlsrubKWCacMnYnEdlRkumh‘unTTYl)anBI karlk;plitplrbs;vabUk karekIneLIgtMél énRTBüskmµEdlCakmµsiT§rbs;Rkumh‘un. dUcenH cMNUlsrubénshRKasplitRkvilKW 5000duløar kñúgcMNUlCak;Esþg bUknwg 1000duløarkñúgcMNUlminCak;Esþg esµInwg 6000 duløar. sRmab;Gñkesdækic©³

Economic profit = (Explicit and implicit revenue) – (Explicit and implicit cost)

dUecñHkñúgkrNIenH cMeNjesdækic© KWesµI ($5000 + 1000$) – (3000$ +1500$) = $1500. PaBxusEbøkKñaRtUvEteFIVvaCamYynwgPaBEdlGacvas;Evg)an. cMNUlminCak;EsþgRtUvEt):an; RbmaN ehIy kar):an;RbmaNeBlxøHGacminc,as;las;. CaTUeTAc,ab;KNenyüminGnuBaØat eGaymanPaB minc,as;las;dUecñHeT BIeRBaHvaRbEhlCaeFVIeGayRkumh‘unrkeXIjR)ak;cMeNjxus EdleBlxøH c,ab;KNenyüRtUv)aneKeFVIedIm,ICagvagkMhusenH.

3- dMeNIrkarry³eBlEvg nig dMeNIrkarry³eBlxøI

kñúgdMeNIrkarplitkmµKW CaFmµtaeKEckCaesckþIseRmccitþEpndMeNIrkarkarry³eBlEvg (long-run planning decision) EdlkñúgenaHshRKaseRCIserIsviFIsaRsþénkarplitEdléføva man kMritTabCageK BIkñúgcMeNamviFIsaRsþTaMgLayEdlGaceFVI)an. esckþIseRmcdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøI KWshRKas sMrYlesckþIseRmcEpnkarry³eBlEvgrbs;vaedIm,IeqøIytbeTAnwgBt’manfµI.

ពាក្យថារយៈពេលវែង ឬខ្លី មិនសំដៅទៅលើពេលវេលា ថ្ងៃ ខែ ឬឆ្នាំ ទេ គឺអាស្រ័យលើភាពជាក់ ស្តែងនៃប្រភេទ និងទ្រងទ្រាយផលិតកម្មតែប៉ុណ្ណោះ។ ឧទាហរណ៍ សហគ្រាសដឹកជញ្ជូនតូចមួយអាចពង្រីក ទ្រង់ទ្រាយទំហំផលិតកម្ម ដោយសារការទិញរថយន្តថ្មីបន្ថែមតែក្នុងរយៈពេលមួយ ឬពីរខែ តែសហគ្រាស ខ្លះទៀត ដូចជាក្រុមហ៊ុនបូមប្រេងកាតមួយ ដើម្បីពង្រីកទំហំសហគ្រាស គេត្រូវការប្រើពេលរាប់ឆ្នាំក៏មាន ។ ដូចនេះសំខាន់ គឺថាពេលវេលាចាំបាច់ និងគ្រប់គ្រាន់សម្រាប់អោយគេផ្លាស់ប្តូរចំណាយទៅលើកត្តា ផលតិកម្មដែលថេរបាន គឺរាប់ថាជារយៈពេលវែងហើយទោះបីជាមួយថ្ងៃ មួយខែ មួយឆ្នាំ ឬពីរឆ្នាំក្តី។

រយៈពេលខ្លី គឺជារយៈពេលដែលបរិមាណនៃកត្តាផលិតកម្មមួយយ៉ាងតិចមិនប្រែប្រួល ហើយ បិរមាណនៃកត្តាផលិតកម្មផ្សេងទៀតអាចប្រែប្រួល។ កត្តាផលិតកម្ម ដែលបរិមាណរបស់វាអាចប្រែប្រួលក្នុង រយៈពេលខ្លីហៅថា កត្តាផលិតកម្មអថេរ ហើយកត្តាផលិតកម្មដែលបរិមាណរបស់មិនប្រែប្រួលក្នុងរយៈពេលខ្លី ហៅថា កត្តាផលិតកម្មថេរ។

រយៈពេលវែង គឺជារយៈពេលដែលកត្តាផលិតកម្មទាំងអស់ប្រែបួល។ គ្មានពេលវេលាច្បាស់លាស់ណាមួយ អាចញែករយៈពេលវែង និងរយៈពេលខ្លីបានទេ។

4- mUldæanénkarseRmccitþ

BIeRBaHEtkMéresµInwgcMNUlsrub dkeGayéføedImsrub shRKasnimYy²RtUvdwgfaetIéføedImsrub b:unµanedIm,Iplitplitpl nigetIéføb:unµan EdrplitplGaclk;)an.

edIm,IdwgéføedIm edIm,IplitTMnij b¤k¾esvakmµ eyIgRtUvdwgGMBIbec©keTsplitEdlman nigdwg GMBIéføénktþaplitkmµEdrRtUvkar. ]TahrN_ edIm,IRbmaNdwgfaetIéføedImb:unµanedIm,IdMeNIrkar sßanIy eRbgmYy eyIgRtUvdwgfasmÖar³GVIxøHEdleyIgRtUvkar kmµkrb:unµannak;.l. eyIgk¾RtUvdwgpgEdrGMBI GRta R)ak;QñÜlkmµkr éføénm:asuInbUmeRbg GRtakarR)ak; éføQñÜlCYldIenAtMbn;kac;RCugEdlmanmnusS eRcIn nigéfølk;duMéneRbg. CakarBit eyIgk¾RtUvdwgpgEdretIeyIgGaclk;eRbgéføb:unµan.

k- éføTIpSarénplitpl

K- éføénktþaplitkmµ

éføedImplitplkMNt;nUv cMNUl. bec©keTsEdlman R)ab;eyIgGMBIetIktþaplitkmµb:unµanEdl eyIgRtUvkar nigéføktþaplitkmµ bgðajBIéføedImktþaplitkmµ. CarYmbec©keTsplitkmµ nigéføktþa plitkmµkMNt;éføedImplitkmµ.

Input prices

Determines
total revenue

Determine total cost and optimal

method of production

Production techniques

Price of output

Total revenue
-Total cost with optimal method
= Total profit

II- muxgarplitkmµ³ plitplsrub plitplbEnßm nigplitplCamFüm

TMnak;TMngrvagktþaplitkmµ nig plitpl KW bec©keTsplitkmµ EdlkñúgKNitviTüaehAfa muxgarplitkmµ b¤ muxgarplitkmµsrub. muxgarplikmµ bgðajÉktaénplitplplsrub Camuxgar mYyénÉkta énktþaplikmµ.

]TahrN_ haglk;nMsaMgvic. ral;nMEdlplitenAkñúghagRtUv)aneq¥Ir ehIyhagmanEt]bkrN_ eq¥IrEtmYy EdlGaceGaymnusSBIrnak;Qreq¥Ir)an. dUcEdreyIgeXIjkñúgtaragxageRkam kmµkrmñak;eFVI karEtÉgGacplit)anEt 10nMkñúg1em:ag edayrYmbBa©ÚlTaMgkareqøIytbTUrs½BÞ caMTTYlePJov nigsMGattupgEdr. kmµkrTI2 GacQrenA]bkrN_eq¥IreBjem:agedaymincaM)ac;xVl;GVI²epSgeTot naMeGayKat;Gacplit)annMcMnYn15kñúg1em:ag dUecñHTaMgBIrGñkplit)an 25nMkñúg1em:ag. kmµkrTI3 BüayameRbIR)as;]bkrN_eqI¥rEdr EdlnaMeGayceg¥ót b:uEnþeTaHCay:agNak¾edaynMGacRtUv)anplit eRcInCagmun. kmµkrTI3 )anbEnßm 10nMeTot kñúg1em:ag. cUrcaMfaplitplbEnßmEdl)anmkBIkarCYl kmµkrTI3)antic KWeRBaHEtkMhitmUlFn minEmneRBaHEtkmµkrTI3 x¢ileT. eyIgsnµt;fakmµkrTaMgGs; KWmansmtßPaBdUcKµa.

kmµkrTI4 nig TI5 Gaceq¥IrnMEteBlNaEdl kmµkrTaMg3xagedImkMBugdak;RCk; xÞwm)araMg nigeFVI karvicx©b; nMsaMgvicEdlBYkeK)aneFVIb:ueNÑaH. dUecñHkmµkr3xagedImRtUvEtrgcaMRtlb;mkeq¥Irvij. kmµkr TI4 )anbEnßmnMcMnYn5 kñúg1em:agdl;cMnYnsrub ehIykmµkrTI5 bEnßmcMnYnEt 2nM b:ueNÑaH. rIÉkmµkrTI6 min)anbEnßmnMeT³ smtßPaBGtibrimabc©úb,nñrbs;hagKW 42nMsaMgvickñúg1em:ag.

plitplbEnßm nig c,ab;énkarkat;bnßyplitplbEnßm³ plitplbEnßm KWCaplitplEdl GacplitedayedaykarCYlbEnßmmYyÉktaktþaplitkmµCak;lak;mYy edayrkSaktþaplitkmµd¾éTeTot eGayenAdEdl.

c,ab;énkarkat;bnßyplitplbEnßm³ niyayfaenAeBlEdldak;bEnßm ktþaplitkmµGefrmYy eTAkñúgktþaplitkmµefr bnÞab;BIcMnucCak;lak;mYy plitplbEnßménktþaplitkmµGefrenaHFøak;cuH.

muxgarplitkmµ
cMnYnkmµkr	plitplsrub	plitplbEnßm	plitplCamFüm
0	0	-	-
1	10	10	10>0
2	25	15	12>5
3	35	10	11>7
4	40	5	10>0
5	42	2	8>4
6	42	0	7>0

karkat;bnßyplitplbEnßm cab;epþImbgðajenAeBlEdlÉktaénktþaplitkmµGefrkan;EteRcIn eTA²RtUv)andak;bEnßmkñúgktþaplitkmµefr dUcCaeragcRkCaedIm. rMlwkeLIgvijGMBIdMeNIrkarry³eBl xøI fakMLúgeBlmYyEdrktþaplitkmµefrxøHénplitkmµ kMhitnUvshRKas. Gacniyay)anfa³ karkat; bnßyplitplbEnßmEtgEtekIteLIgenAkñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøI ehIykñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøIral; shRKasEtgEtCYbRbTHkarkat;bnßyplitplbEnßm. vamann½yfaral;shRKasTaMgGs;CYbRbTHnUv PaBBi)akkan;EtxøaMgedIm,IbegáInpliplrbs;xøÜn enAeBlEdlvaxiteTACitdl;smtßPaBplitkmµ.

plitplbEnßm nig plitplCamFüm³ plitplCamFüm CacMnYnCamFümEdlplit)aneday ktþaplikmµGefrnimYy². kñúghaglk;nMsaMgvicEdlman]bkrN_GaMgmYy ktþaplikmµGefrKWkMlaMg Blkmµ. kñúgtaragxagelIGñkeXIjfakmµkrBIrnak;dMbUg Gacplit)an 25nM kñúg1em:ag. plitpl Ca mFümrbs;BYkeK KW 12>5nM. kmµkrTI3bEnßmEtcMnYn 10nMkñúg1em:ag. 10nMenHCaplitpl bEnßménkMlaMgBlkmµ. plitplCamFüménkmµkrbInak;dMbUgKW 11>7nM. plitplCamFümesµInwg plitplsrubEckeGayÉktasrubénBlkmµ.

average product of labor =

total product

total units of labor

plitplCamFüm edIrtamplitplbEnßm b:uEnþvaminERbRbYlPøam²eT. RbsinebIplitpl bEnßmx<s;CagplitplCamFüm mFümPaKekIneLIg/ RbsinebIplitplbEnßmTabCagplitplCa mFüm mFümPaKfycuH. ]TahrN_faGñkmanBinÞúRblg 6mux EdlmanmFümPaK 86. RbsinebI GñkeFVI)an BinÞú 75 enAmuxviC¢abnÞab;eTot mFümPaKrbs;GñknwgFøak;enAsl; 84>4BinÞú. RbsinebIGñk eFVI)anBinÞú 95 vij mFümPaKrbs;GñknwgeLIgdl; 87>3. dUcEdlkñúgtaragxagelIbgðaj plitpl bEnßménnMsaMgvic Føak;cuHKYreGaykt;sMKal;bnÞab;BIkmµkrTI3 RtUv)anCYl. pliplCamFümk¾fycuH b:uEnþvayWtCag.

rUbPaBxagbgðajGMBIExSekagmuxgarplitkmµ ExSekagplitplbEnßm nigplitplCamFüm. plitplCamFüm nig plitplbEnßmcab;epþImedayesµIKña enAeBlEdlplitplbEnßmelateLIg RkahVicénExSekagplitplCamFümeLIgtamEdr b:uEnþyWtCag rhUtdl;cMnuc L₁¬cMnuc A¦.

cUrkt;sMKal;faplitplbEnßmcab;epþImedaykarekIneLIg. dMeNIrkarplitkmµPaKeRcIneFVIeLIg edIm,IdMeNIrkarl¥CamYykmµkrelIsBI1nak;. ]TahrN_ GMBIExScgVak;RbmUlpÁúM edIm,ImanRbsiT§iPaB ExS cgVak;RbmUlpÁúMRtUvkarkmµkr1nak; enARKb;sßanIy vaCadMeNIrkarshkarN_mYYy. plitplbEnßm énkmµkrTI1 KWTab b¤k¾sUnü. enAeBlEdlkmµkrRtUv)anbEnßm dMeNIrkarcab;epþImeLIg ehIyplitpl bEnßmekIneLIg.

enAcMnuc A (L₁ units of labor) plitplbEnßmcab;epþImFøak;cuH BIeRBaHEtRKb;eragcRkman smtßPaBkMritmYy esckþIBüayamedIm,IbegáInplitkmµEtgEtCYbRbTHnUvkMriténsmtßPaBenaH. enAcMnuc B (L₂ units of labor) plitplbEnßm)an Føak;cuHesµInwgplitplCamFümEdl)ankMBugekIneLIg. rvagcMnuc B nigcMnuc C (between L₂ and L₃) plitplbEnßmFøak;cuHeRkamplitplCamFmüm ehIyplitplCamFüm k¾cab;epþImFøak;cuHtamEdr. plitplCamFümsßtikñúgkMritGtibrimaenAcMnuc B EdlCakEnøgEdrva esµInwgplitplbEnßm.

enAcMnuc L₃ karbEnßmBlkmµeTotmin)anpþl;TinñpleT ehIyplitplbEnßmKWesµInwg sUnü ExS cgVak;RbmUlpÁúMKµankEnøgTMenreToteT/ ]bkrN_eq¥Ir)ansÞH.

muxgarplitkmµCamYynwgktþaplitkmµGefrcMnYnBIr

eyIg)ansikSarYcmkehIynUvmuxgarplitkmµCamYyktþaplitkmµGefrEtmYy. eTaHCay:agNa k¾edayktþaplitkmµcUlrYmKñakñúgplitkmµ. CaTUeTA kardak;bEnßmmUlFn)anbegáInnUvplitPaBrbs; Blkmµ. BIeRBaHmUlFn dUcCaGaKar m:asuIn CaedIm vaminmanRbeyaCn_eTRbsinebIKµanmnusSeRbIva eyIgGacniyay)anfamUlFn nigBlkmµKWCaktþaBlkmµEdlbMeBjeGayKñaeTAvijeTAmk.

]TahrN_ sUmBicarNamþgeTotGMBIhagnMsaMgvic RbsinebItRmUvkarsaMgviccab; epþImelIs smßPaB EdlhagGacplit)an m©as;hagRbEhlCaseRmccitþRtUvBRgIksmtßPaB. dUcenHmann½yfa RtUvTij ]bkrN_GaMgfµImYyeTot.

]bkrN_GaMgfµIenHKYrEtGaceFVIeGaysmtßPaBrbs;hagekIneLIgeTVrmYyCaBIr. smtßPaBfµI Edlx<s;Cagmann½yfahagnMsaMgvicnwgminFøak;cUlkñúgkarkat;bnßyplitPaBbEnßmrh½seT. CamYynwg ]bkrN_GaMgEtmYy eFVIeGaykmµkrTI3 nigTI4 manplitPaBticeRBaHEt]bkrN_GaMgmYyceg¥óteBk. CamYynwg]bkrN_GaMgBIr kmµkrTI3 nigTI4 Gacplit)annMcMnYn 15kñúg1em:agedayeRbIR)as;]bkrN_ GaMgTI2. vamansar³sMxan; Edlkardak;bEnßmmUlFn)anbegáInplitPaBénBlkmµ EdlCacMnYnén TinñplEdlplit)anedaymnusSmñak;kñúg1em:ag.

III- éføedImkñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøI

kñúgRkumh‘unNak¾eday m©as;shRKas nigGñkRKb;RKgRbEhlCaBiPakSaGMBIéføeRcIn CagGVIepSg eTot. éføedImGefrx<s;xøaMgNas; dUcenHehIyshRKasBüayamEsVgrkdMeNaHRsayedIm,IbnÞab BYk va. b:uEnþTsSnaTanéføedIm KWmann½yminR)akdeT vamanRbePTCaeRcInénéføedIm ehIyvamansar³ sMxan;edIm,IdwgfaetIBYkvaCaGVI. dUcEdleyIg)andwgehIyfakñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøIvaekIteLIgnUvlkçxNÐcMnYnBIr³ 1> Rkumh‘un EdlmanRsab;manedayktþaplitkmµefrxøH/ 2> Rkumh‘unfµIminGaccUl ehIyRkumh‘unEdlmanRsab;min GacecjBI]sSahkmµ.

kñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøIral;shRKasmanéføedImEdlBYkeKRtUvEtTTYl edayminKiteTAdl; plitplrbs;BYkeK. CakarBitéføedImxøHKWRtUvEtbg; eTaHCashRKasQb;plitk¾eday. éføedImenH ehAfa éføedImefr ehIyshRKasminGaceFVIGVITaMgGs;kñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøIedIm,IbeBa©ós b¤k¾eFVI eGayvaERbRbYl. kñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlEvg shRKasKµanéføedImefreT eRBaHfavaGacBRgIk cuH kic©snüa b¤k¾cakecjBI]sSahkmµ)an.

kñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøIshRKasmanéføedImCak;EsþgmYy EdlGaRs½yelITinñplEdlBYkeK )aneRCIserIs. RbePTénéføedImenHeKehAfa éføedImGefr. éføedImefr nig éføedImGefr begáIn)anCa éføedImsrub ³

éføedImsrub = srubéføedImefr ÷ srubéføedImGefr

TC = TFC + TVC

1- éføedImefr (Fixed Costs)

KWCaéføedImEdlminGaRs½yeTAelIkMriténTinñplrbs;shRKas. éføedImenHekIteLIgeTaHCa shRKasmin)anplitGVIk¾eday. RbsinebIeyIgdMeNIrkareragcRkmYy eTaHCavamin)anplitk¾eday k¾ eyIgRbEhlCaRtUvCYsCuldMbUlkuMeGaylic CYlsnþisuxedIm,IyamGaKar ehIynwgbg;elIkarCYleday mankic©snüa. RbEhlRtUvbg;Fanar:ab;rg Bn§ b¤katBVkic©kic©snüacMeBaHkmµkr.

]TahrN_ Rkumh‘unRBwkSaeyabl;mYy EdlbMerIkaredayGñkesdækic©BIrbIGñk CMnYykarEpñk RsavRCav elxaFikarCaedIm. va)anCYlGaKarmYyEdlmankugRta5qñaM. karCYlGaKarCaéføedImefrkñúg ry³eBlxøI k¾dUcCaR)ak;ExbuKÁlikrdæ)al nigsMPar³xøH²dUcCa m:asuIne)aHftcMlg b¤kuMBüÚT½rCaedIm.

éføedImefrkñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøI ¬srub nig mFüm¦
brimaN	srubéføedImefr	mFüméføedImefr
0	1 000 duløar	-
1	1 000	1 000
2	1 000	500
3	1 000	333
4	1 000	250
5	1 000	200

Rkumh‘unk¾manéføedImEdlERbRbYledayplitplEdr. enAeBlEdlmankargareRcIn Rkumh‘un CYl buKÁlikkan;EteRcInkñúgEpñkCMnaj nigEpñkRsavRCav. mUlFnxøHEdleRbIR)as;edayRkumh‘un k¾Gac ERbRbYleTaHCakñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøI. mankargareRcInRkumh‘unGacTijkuMBüÚT½rbEnßm b¤k¾eRbIR)as; m:asuInkUBIkan;EteRcIneLIg².

enAkñúgtaragxagelIéføedImefrKW 1 000duløar enARKb;kMriténTinñpl. kñúgrUbPaBbgðajBIéføedImefr CamuxgarmYyénplipl. eRBaHEtsrubéføedImefrminERbRbYl dUcenHRkahVicKWCaExSbnÞat;edkRtg;enA Rtg; 1 000duløar.

mFüméføedImefr³ mFüméføedImefrCasrubéføedImefr EckeGaycMnYnÉktaplitpl.

mFüménéføedImefr AFC = FC/Q

]TahrN_kñúgrUbPaBxagelIRbsinebIshRKasplit 3Éktaplitpl mFüméføedImefrKW 333duløa. RbsinebIshRKasplit 5Éktaplitpl mFüméføedImefresµInwg 200duløar. mFüméfø edImefrFøak;cuHeBlEdlplitplekIneLIg. RkahVicrbs;mFüméføedImefrKW ExSekagEdlmanlkçN³ daMk,alcuH. kt;sMKal;famFüméføedImefrFøak;cuHmkEk,r sUnüeBlEdlbrimaNplitplekIneLIg. RbsinebI plitplEdlplit)ancMnYn 100 000Ékta naMeGaymFüméføedImefresµInwg 1esn b:ueNÑaH kñúg 1Ékta.

2- éføedImGefr (Variable Costs)

srubéføedImGefr³ KWCacMnYnsrubénéføedImEdlERbRbYlCamYynigkMritplitplkñúgdMeNIrkar ry³eBlxøI. edIm,Iplit)anplipleRcIneLIg shRKaseRbIR)as;ktþaplitkmµeRcIneLIgEdr. éføedIm plitplbEnßmGaRs½yelIktþaplitkmµbEnßmEdlRtUvkar nigéførbs;va.

dUcEdlFøab;eXIjehIyfa tRmUvkarktþaplitkmµkMNt;edaybec©kviTüa. shRKasman bec©kviTüaplitkmµmYycMnYnEdlGacrk)an ehIyCMerIsEdlBYkeKeRbIR)as;KWmYYy Edlplit)annUvkMrit plitplEdlcg;)anehIymanéføedImTab. edIm,IrkeGayeXIjfaetIbec©kviTüaNamYyEdlmanéføedIm Tab shRKasRtUvEteRbobeFobéføedImGefrsrub énkarplitnUvkMritplitplEdlcg;)anedayeRbI bec©keTsepSgKña.

vaBitsRmab;GaCIvkmµxñattUc rhUtdl;shRKasxñatFM. ]bmafaGñkCaksikrtUctacmñak;/ kargar caM)ac;mYycMnYnRtUvEteFVIedIm,IkardaMduHnwgRbmUlplelIdI 3 hikta. GñkGacCYlkmµkr4nak; b¤k¾Tij m:asuInTMenIb²edayeRbIkmµkrEtmñak;. CMerIscugeRkayrbs;GñkGaRs½yelIkargarmYycMnYn. etIGñkmanm:asuInGVI? etIvabMeBjmuxgarGVIxøH? ehIyvanwgeFVIkarenAelIksidæand¾tUcdUcédrbs;Gñkb¤eT? etIsMPar³EdlRtUvTijtMélb:unµan? etIR)ak;QñÜlBlkmµsRmab;kmµkrb:unµan? etIkmµkrb:unµannak;EdlGñk RtUvkar? RbsinebIm:asuInéfø ehIyBlkmµefakGñkRbEhlCaeRCIsykbec©kviTüaGtiBlkmµ. RbsinebI Blkmµéfø ehIym:asuInksikmµefakGñkRbEhlCaeRCIsykbec©kviTüaRbBlmUlFn.

edayeRbobeFobéføedImbec©keTsplitkmµepSg²TaMgenaH shRKasGacman\T§iBlelICMerIs edayTMhMénRbtibtþikarbc©úb,nñrbs;va. caMfakñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøIshRKasCab;nwgTMhMkMNt;mYyén Rbtibtþikar. shRKasEdlplitkñúgTMhMtUcRbEhlCarkeXIjfakareRbIbec©keTsGtiBlkmµ KWmanéfø edImTabbMput. dUcKñaEdrshRKasEdrmanTMhMRbtibtþikarFMRbEhlCaeXIjfakareRbIbec©keTsRbBl mUlFn KWmantMélefakCag.

ExSekagéføedImGefrsrub KWCaRkahVic EdlbgðajBITMnak;TMngrvagéføedImGefrsrub nigkMritén plitplrbs;shRKas. RKb;cMnucTaMgGs;énplitpl éføedImGefrsrubGaRs½yelI 1> bec©keTsén plitkmµEdlGacman nig 2> éføénktþaplitkmµEdlRtUvkaredaybec©kviTüanimYy².

karkMNt;éføedImGefrsrubBI tMélbec©kviTüa nigktþaplitkmµ
plit	bec©keTs eRbIR)as;	ÉktaktþaplitkmµEdlRtUvkar K L		karsnµt; éføedImGefrsrub
1 Éktaplitpl	A	4	4	12
1 Éktaplitpl	B	2	6	10
2 Éktaplitpl	A	7	6	20
2 Éktaplitpl	B	4	10	18
3 Éktaplitpl	A	9	6	24
3 Éktaplitpl	B	6	14	26

taragxagelIbgðajGMBIkarPaKmYyGMBIcMnuc3enAelIExSekagéføedImGefr. kñúgkrNIenH man bec©keTsplitkmµBIrEdlmanKW A nig B EdlnimYy²mankareRbIR)as;mUlFnxus²Kña. eyIgsnµt;fa tMélBlkmµKW 1duløar kñúg1Ékta ehIytMélmUlFnKW 2duløarkñúg1Ékta. kñúg]TahrN_enHeyIg epþateTAelI mUlFnGefr EdlCamUlFnEdlGacERbRbYlkñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøI. kñúg]TahrN_eyIg eRbIR)as; K edIm,IsMKal; mUlFnGefr. caMfa shRKasenAmanmUlFnepSg²eTotEdlefrkñúgdMeNIrkar ry³eBlxøI.

tamkarviPaKbgðajeGayeXIjfa edIm,IplitplitplmYyÉkta bec©keTsGtiBlkmµKWman tMélTabCag. bec©keTs A tMrUveGaymanBlkmµ4Ékta nigmUlFn4Ékta EdléføedImsrubKW 12 duløar. bec©keTs B tRmUvkar 6ÉktaénBlkmµ b:uEnþEt 2ÉktaénmUlFn EdlmanéføedImsrubKW 10 duløa. edIm,IcMeNjCaGtibrima shRKasKYreRbIbec©keTs B edIm,Iplitplitpl. dUecñHéføedImGefr srubén 1ÉktaplitplKW 10duløar.

bec©keTsGtiBlkmµ B k¾CameFüa)ayd¾l¥sRmab;plit 2ÉktaplitplEdr. edayeRbI bec©keTs B shRKasGacplit 2ÉktaplitplCamYyéføedIm 18duløar. eTaHCay:agNa RbsineebI shRKasseRmcfaplit 3Éktaplitpl bec©keTs A vamanéføTabCag. edayeRbIbec©keTs A éføedImGefrsrubKW 24duløar. shRKaseRbIR)as; 9ÉktaénmUlFn nig 6ÉktaénBlkmµ.

mFüméføedImGefr

mFüméføedImGefresµInwg éføedImGefrsrubEckeGaycMnYnÉktaénplitpl.

mFüménéføedImGefr AVC = TVC/Q

GñkGaceXIj kñúgtaragxageRkamnUvmFüméføedImefrkñúgkUeLanTI6 nigéføedImbEnßmkñúgkUeLan TI5. ]TahrN_ éføedImGefrsrubén 5ÉktaplitplKW 42 duløar dUcenHmFüméføedImGefr KWesµInwg 42¼5 esµI 8>40 duløar.

3- éføedImbEnßm (Marginal Cost)

éføedImbEnßmKWmansar³sMxan;CageKkñúgTsSnaTanéføedIm. vaKWCakarekIneLIgkñúgéføedImsrub EdlCalT§plénmYyÉktabEnßmplitpl. vaqøúHbBa©aMgBIkarERbRbYlénéføedImGefr. ]TahrN_ shRKasplit 1000ÉktaplitplkñúgkMLúgeBlmYy ehIyseRmcfabegáInplitplrhUtdl; 1001 Ékta. karplit 1ÉktabEnßmbegáInéføedIm ehIyéføedImEdlekInenaH KWCaéføedIménkarplit plitpl TI 1001 enHehIyCaéføedImbEnßm.

éføedImkñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøIénRkumh‘unmYy
brimaN ¬1¦	éføedImefr ¬2¦	srubéfø edImGefr ¬3¦	éføedImsrub ¬4¦	éføedImbEnßm ¬5¦	mFüméfø edImGefr ¬6¦	mFüméfø edImefr ¬7¦	mFüméfø edImsrub ¬8¦
0	$ 1000	$ 0	$ 1000	$ -	$ -	$ -	$ -
1	1000	10	1010	10	10	1000	1010
2	1000	18	1018	8	9	500	509
3	1000	24	1024	6	8	333	341
4	1000	32	1032	8	8	250	258
5	1000	42	1042	10	8>4	200	208>4
-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
500	1000	8000	9000	20	16	2	18

kñúgtaragxagelIbgðajéføedImbEnßm)anmkBIéføedImGefrsrub edayRKan;EteFVIkardkelx Fmµtab:ueNÑaH. éføedImGefrénkarplit ÉktaTI1énplitplKW 10duløar. karbegáInplitkmµBI 1 eTA 2Ékta)anbegáInéføedImGefrsrubBI 10 eTA 18duløar. PaBxusKñaKWéføedImbEnßménplitplTI2 esµInwg 8duløar. karbegáInplitpl BI 2 eTA 3Ékta begáInnUvéføedImGefrsrubBI 18 eTA 24 duløar. dUcenHéføedImbEnßménÉktaTI3 énplitplKW 6duløar.

vamansar³sMxan;EdrfaRtUvKitGMBIlkçN³énéføedImbEnßm. CaBiesséføedImbEnßmKWCaéføedIm énktþaplitkmµEdldak;bEnßm EdlRtUvkaredIm,IplitmYyÉktabEnßménplipl. cYrRkeLkemIltarag xagelImYyeTot cUrKitelIkardak;bEnßmmUlFn nigBlkmµedIm,ItemøIgBI 1Ékta eTA 2Éktaplitpl. plit 1ÉktþaplitplCamYybec©keTs B RtUvkar 2ÉktaénmUlFn nig 6ÉktaénBlkmµ/ plit 2 Ékta énplitplRtUvkarRtUvkar 4ÉktaénmUlFn nig 10ÉktaénBlkmµ. dUcenHÉktaTI2 RtUvkar 2ÉktabEnßménmUlFn nig 4ÉktabEnßménBlkmµ. mann½yfabEnßméføedImGefrénktþaplitkmµ KW mUlFncMnYn 4duløar ¬2Ékta KuNnwg éfø2duløar¦ nwgBlkmµcMnYn 4duløar ¬4Ékta KuNnwg éfø1duløar¦ srubesµI 8duløarEdlCacMnYnEdleyIgeTIbnwgrkeXIjxagelI.

kñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøIRKb;shRKasTMagGs;RtUvCab;CamYYynwgktþaplitkmµefrxøH ¬1¦ Edl naMeGaykat;bnßyplitplbEnßmcMeBaHktþaplitkmµGefr nig ¬2¦ kMritsmßPaBplit. enAeBlEdl shRKasxitCitdl;smtßPaBplitenaH vaERbCarwtEtekInéføedIm edIm,Iplitkan;EteRcInénkMrit plitpl. éføedImbEnßmCacugeRkay ekIneLIgCamYynwgplitplkñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøI.

4- éføedImsrub (Total Cost)

ral;éføedImTaMgGs;KW efr nigGefr. dUcenHéføedImsrubesµI karsrubénéføedImefr nigéføedIm Gefr.

éføedImsrub = srubéføedImefr ÷ srubéføedImGefr

TC = TFC + TVC

mFüméføedImsrub

mFüméføedImsrub esµInwgéføedImsrubEckcMnYnÉktaénplitpl.

mFüménéføedImsrub ATC = TC/Q

dUcenHeyIgGacKNnamFüménéføedImsrub edayykmFüménéføedImefr bUknwg mFümén éføedImGefr ³

ATC = AFC + AVC

5- TMnak;TMngrvagmFüméføedImsrub nig éføedImbEnßm

TMnak;TMngrvagmFüméføedImsrub nig éføedImbEnßmKWdUcKñanwg TMnak;TMngrvagmFüméføedImGefr nig éføedImbEnßm.

éføedImefresµInwg 1000duløar nig )anekIteLIgenAeBlEdlkMritplitplesµIsUnü. dUecñH plitplTI1 Edl)anplitmanéføedImGefr 10duløar. plitplTI2 manéføedImGefrEt 8duløar. éfø edImsrubTaMg2Ékta KWesµInwg 1018duløar mFüméføedImsrubesµInwg 509duløa. éføedImbEnßménplit plTI3 Et6duløar. dUenHéføedImsrubTaMg3ÉktaKW 1024duløar ehIymFüméføedImsrubén3Ékta esµI nwg 341duløar.

dUcEdrGñk)aneXIjkñúg]TahrN_xagelI éføedImbEnßmCaGVIEdlbNþaleGaymankarERbRbYl kñúgmFüméføedImsrub³

RbsinebIéføedImbEnßmsßitenATabCagmFüméføedImsrub mFüméføedImsrubnwgFøak;cuHmkrkéfø edImbEnßm. RbsinebIéføedImbEnßmsßitx<s;mFüméføedImsrub mFüméføedImsrubnwgekIneLIg. Ca lT§pl éføedImbEnßmesµInwgmFüméføedImsrubenAeBlcMnucEdlmFüméføedImsrubTabbMput k¾dUcKñaEdr ExSekagéføedImbEnßmRbsBVKñanwgExSekagmFüméføedImsrubenAcMnucTabbMputTabbMput.

III- cMNUl éføedIm nig GtibrimakmµkMér

edIm,IKNnakMérskþanuBl shRKasRtUvEtbBa©ÚlkarviPaKéføedImrbs;eKCamYynwgBt’manGMBI cMNUlskþanuBlBIkarlk;. shRKasnwgdYlrlMRbsinebIRkumh‘unminGaclk;plitpl)anéføCagéføedIm rbs;vaeT. pÞúymkvijRbsinebITIpSarpþl;eGayshRKasnUvéføEdlFMCagéføedIm shRKasRbEhl CamaneRKOgelIkTwkcitþedIm,IBRgIkplitpl. kMéreRcInk¾GacTak;TajeGayKURbECgfµIeGaycUlmkkñúg TIpSar.

\LÚvcUr BicarNalMGitfaetIshRKaskMNt;plitplb:unµanedIm,Iplit nigplity:agdUcemþc?

rUbPaBxagelIbgðajGMBIshRKasEdlsßitenAkñúg]sSahkmµRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkitü. éfø Edl )ankMNt;edayTIpSarKW P^*= 5duløar. shRKasmYyGackMNt;éføEdlxøÜncg;)ansRmab;plitpl xøÜn b:uEnþRbsinebIx<s;Cag 5duløar brimaNtRmUvkarnwgFøak;dl;sUnü ehIyshRKasnwgminGaclk; plitpl rbs;xøÜn)aneLIy. shRKasGaclk;plitplrbs;xøÜnedayéføTabCag 5duløar b:uEnþvamin manehtupledIm,IeFVIdUcenHeLIy.

1- cMNUlsrub nig cMNUlbEnßm

kMérKWCaPaBxusKñarvagcMNUlsrub nig éføedImsrub. cMNUlsrub KWCacMnYnsrubEdlshRKas )anmkBIkarlk;plitplrbs;xøÜn. shRKasEdlRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkitü lk;RKb;Éktaénplitpl rbs;xøÜnkñúgéfødUcKña edayminKiteTAdl;kMritplitplEdlva)aneRCIserIs. dUecñH cMNUlsrub esµInwg éføénplitplkñúg1Ékta KuNnwgcMnYnplitplEdlshRKasseRmcplit.

cMnYlsrub = éfø x brimaN

TR = P x q

cMNUlbEnßm KWCacMNUlbEnßmEdl)anmkBIshRKasbegáInpliplmYyÉkta. RbsinebI shRKasplit 10/521Ékta kñúg 1Ex karbegáInplitpldl; 10/522 vanwgbegáIncMNUlbEnßmén ExnimYy². cMNUlEdlTak;TgCamYynwg ÉktaTI 10/522 KWCacMnYnEdlshRKaslk;1Ékta plitplenH. dUcenH sRmab;shRKasRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkitü cMNUlbEnßmKWesµInwgtMélTIpSar bc©úb,nñ sRmab;ral;ÉktabEnßmEdl)anlk;. kñúgrUbxagelI éføTIpSarKW 5duløar. dUecñHenAeBlEdl Rkumh‘un begáInplitplBI 10/521Ékta eTAdl; 10/522 Ékta cMNUlrbs;vanwgekIneLIg 5duløar.

ExSekagcMNUlbEnßmrbs;shRKas bgðajfaetIcMNUlb:unµanEdlRkumh‘unnwgTTYl)aneday karbegáInplitplmYyÉktaenARKb;kMriténplipl. ExSekagcMNUlbEnßm nigExSekagtRmUvkar rbs;shRKasRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkitüKWdUcKñaebHbiT. bnÞat;edkkñúgrUbPaB (b) xagelIGaccat;Tuk faCaExSekagtRmUvkarpg nigExSekagcMNUlbEnßmpgEdr³

P^* = d = MR

2- kareRbobeFobéføedIm nig cMNUledIm,IGtibrimakmµkMér

cUrcaMfaeyIgsnµt;fa 1- ]sSahkmµEdleyIgkMBugGegátCakarRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkitü nig 2- shRKaseRCIserIskMritpliplEdlpþl;eGaynUvkMérGtibrima.

kMritGtibrimakmµkMérénplitpl cUremIleGay)anditdl;nUvrUbPaBxageRkam. eyIgmanTIpSar TaMgmUlb¤]sSahkmµ rUbPaBxageqVg ehIyrUbPaBénRkumh‘unmYyenAxagsþaM. ehIyéføTIpSar bc©úb,nñKW P^*.

dMbUgshRKasGegátTIpSarehIydwgfavaGaclk;plitplrbs;xøÜnkñúgéfø P^* = 5duløarkñúg 1Ékta. bnÞab;mkvaRtUvEtseRmcfaplitb:unµan? vamanehtupledIm,IplitnUvkMritplitpl enAcMnucEdr éføedImbEnßmenAcMnucTabbMput kñúgkrNIenHenAcMnucplitpl 100Ékta. EdlcMnucenHvamanPaBxusKña xøaMgrvagcMNUlbEnßmEdlesµInwg 5duløar nigéføedImbEnßmEdlesµInwg 2>5 duløar.

caMfashRKascg;eFVIGtibrimakmµ PaBxusKñarvagcMNUlsrub nig éføedImsrub minEmnPaBxusKña rvagcMNUlbEnßm nig éføedImbEnßmeT. karBitKWfa cMNUlbEnßmFMCagéføedImbEnßm vabgðajGMBIkMér minEmnGtibrimakmµeT.

cUrKitGMBIÉktaTI101. kardak;1ÉktabEnßmcMeBaHplitkmµ RKb;eBlpþl;nUvcMNUlbEnßm 5duløar b:uEnþbEnßmRbEhlCa 2>5duløarénéføedImb:ueNÑaH. R)ak;cMeNjRKb;eBlekIneLIg RbEhlCa 2>5duløar. dUecñHCMerIsl¥bMputénplipl KWx<s;Cag100Ékta.

\LÚvemIleTAelIkMrit Ékta250énplitpl. enATIenHkalNabEnßmplitpl k¾begáInkMér. cMNUlTTYl)anBIkarplitÉktaTI251 énplitplKWenAEt 5duløar ehIyéføedIménÉktaTI251 KWEt 4duløarb:ueNÑaH.

¬ d¾rabNacMNUlbEnßmenAEtFMCagéføedImbEnßm karplitbEnßmplitplmann½yfabegáIn kMér. enAeBlNak¾edayeGayEtcMNUlbEnßm elIséføedImbEnßm cMNUlEdlTTYl)anBIkarbegáIn plitpl mYyÉktakñúgkMLúgeBlmYyenAEtelIséføedImEdlekIteLIg.

PaBsmehtuplenH naMeGayBYkeyIgplitdl; 300Éktaplitpl. enA300Ékta éføedIm bEnßm)anekIneLIgdl; 5duløar. enA300Ékta P^* = MR = MC = $5.

caMfaRbsinebIRkumh‘unpliteRcInCag 300Ékta eBlenaHéføedImbEnßmx<s;CagcMNUlbEnßm. ]TahrN_ enARtg; 340ÉktaéføedImbEnßmÉktaTI 341 KWRbEhlCa 5>70duløar xN³Edlkarplit bEnßmplitpl pþl;cMNUlEt 5duløardEdl dUcenHkat;bnßykMér. shRKasnwgmincMNaysRmab;kar begáInplitplenAkEnøgEdréføedImbEnßmx<s;CagcMNUlbEnßmeT eRBaHnaMeGaykat;bnßykMér.

¬ edIm,IGtibrimakmµkMér shRKasRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkitü nwgplitdl;kMritEdléføén plitpl esµInwgéledImbEnßmry³eBlxøI. kMriténplitplEdl P^* = MC.

dUcenHkñúgrUbPaBxagelI kMritGtibrimakmµkMérénplitpl q^*KWesµI 300Ékta. dUecñHRtUvcaMfa³

kMritplitplGtibrimakmµkMér énral;shRKasKWenARtg;kMritplitpl Edl MR = MC.

eTaHCay:agNak¾eday kñúgkarRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkitü MR = P. dUcenHeyIgGacniyay)an fa GtibrimakMérrbs;shRKas KWenARtg; P = MC.

]TahrN_³ kñúgtaragxageRkammanTinñn½yrbs;shRKasmYy. snµt;faTIpSar)ankMNt;éfø 15duløarkñúg 1ÉktaénplitplshRKas.

karviPaKR)ak;cMeNjrbs;shRKasmYy
(1)	(2)	(3)	(4)	(5)	(6)	(7)	(8)
q	TFC	TVC	MC	P = MR	TR	TC	PROFIT
0	$10	$0	$-	$15	$0	$10	$-10
1	10	10	10	15	15	20	-5
2	10	15	5	15	30	25	5
3	10	20	5	15	45	30	15
4	10	30	10	15	60	40	20
5	10	50	20	15	75	60	15
6	10	80	30	15	90	90	0

kñúgkUeLanTI8bgðajfashRKasGtibrimakmµkMér nwgeRCIserIsplit 4Éktaénplitpl. enA kMritenH kMérKW 20 duløar. enAkMritd¾éTeToténplitpl vamankMritTabCag. cUrBicarNaehtuplén éføedImbEnßm nig cMNUlbEnßm?

3- GtibrimakmµkMér

edIm,Iyl;BIcriklkçN³rbs;shRKasEdlkMBugEtrkR)ak;cMeNjc,as; \T,ÚvcUrBicarNa ]TahrN_xageRkam³

]TarhrN_ GMBIshRKasBisidælagrfynþ³ enAeBlEdlshRKasrk)ancMNUlelIséføedIm ¬rabbBa¢ÚlTaMgGRtacMNUlFmµtaBIkarvinieyaK¦ vakMBugEtmankMérmYyCaviC¢man. ]TarhN_faelak Bisidæ)anvinieyaK 500 000duløar edIm,Isagsg;GaKar nigTijnUvral;smÖar³caM)ac;sRmab;karlag sMGatrfynþ. ]bmafaGñkvinieyaKsgÇwmfanwgrk)any:agticesµInwg10PaKryénkarvinieyaK. Rbsin ebIluyedIm,IbegáItnUvCMnYjx©IBIFnaKarvijenaH m©as;caM)ac;RtUvbg;karR)ak;10PaKry. kñúgkrNIenH éføedImsrubcaM)ac;RtUvrab;bBa©Úl 50 000duløar kñúg 1qñaM.

shRKasebIk 50s)aþh_kñúg1qñaM ehIyGaclagrfynþ)an 800kñúg1s)aþh_. eTaHCavaebIk dMeNIrkar b¤k¾mindMeNIrkar shRKasmanéføedImefr. éføedImTaMgenaHrab;bBa©Úl 1000duløarsRmab; GñkvinieyaK ¬50 000duløarsRmab;GRtacMNUlFmµtaBIkarvinieyaK¦ nig1000duløareTotsRmab; éføedImefr epSg²dUcCakic©snüaEfrkSa]bkrN_ karFnara:b;rg CaedIm.

kñúgeBlEdlshRKasdMeNIrkar vak¾manéføedImGefrpgEdr. kmµkrRtUvEteGayR)ak;QñÜl ehIysmÖar³dUcCasab‘U fñaMb:UlaRtUvEtTij. R)ak;QñÜlkñúg 1s)aþh_KW 1000duløar. smÖar³ ePøIgGKÁIsnI CaedIm Gs; 600duløar enAeBlEdleRbIR)as;Gs;lT§PaB. RbsinebIkarlagLanminRbRBwtþeTAeT va KµanéføedImGefreT.

CMnYjlagLanenHvak¾RbkYtRbECgpgEdr. mankEnøglagrfynþCaeRcInEdlmanKuNPaBesµIKña kñúgtMbn; ehIyBYkeK)anpþlesvarbs;BYkeKkñúgtMél 5duløar. RbsinebIshRKascg;)anGtifiCn shRKasminGacKitéføelIsBI 5duløar)aneLIy. snµt;fa Bisidælagrfynþlag)anrfynþcMnYn 800 eRKOgerogral;s)aþh_ vanwg)ancMNUl 4 000duløarBIkarlag. etIcMNUlenHvaRKb;RKan;edIm,I)an kMérviC¢manmYy?

cMelIyKW )aT. cMNUlén 4 000duløar vaRKb;lµmGacRKb;dNþb;éføedImefr 2 000duløar nigéfø edImGefr 1 600duløar cMeNj)an 400duløarkñúg 1s)aþh_.

éføedImrbs;Bisidælagrfynþ
		TOTAL VARIABLE COSTS		TOTAL COSTS
TOTAL FIXED COST (TFC)		(TVC) (800 WHASES)		(TC = TFC + TVC)	$3,600
1. Normal return to investors	$ 1,000	1. Labor 2. Material	$1000 600	Total revenue (TR) at P = $5 (800 x $5)	$4,000
2. Other fixed costs	1,000		$1,600	Profit (TR – TC)	$ 400

RkahVicxagelIbgðaj GMBIskmµPaBénshRKasmYyEdlrk)ankMérCaviC¢mankñúgdMeNIrkarry³ eBlxøI. rUbPaB a bgðajBI]sSahkmµ b¤k¾ TIpSar/ b bgðajBIRkumh‘unmYy. éføTIpSarRtUv)ankMNt; 5duløar. dUecñH snµt;fashRKas Gaclk;cMnYnb:unµank¾edaykñúgéfø P^* = 5duløar/ b:uEnþvamankMritCamYy nwgsmtßPaBrbs;va. ExSekagéføedImbEnßmrbs;va eLIgkñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøIBIeRBaHktþaefr. Gñk )andwgehIyfakñúgshRKasGtibrimakmµkMérRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkitü plitdl;kMritmYyEdléfølk; esµIéføedImbEnßm. RbsinebIéfølk;enAEt elIséføedImbEnßm shRKasGacCMrujkMéredaykarbegáIn plitplkñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøI. shRKasenAkñúgrUbPaBnwgpÁt;pÁg; q^* = 300Ékta énplitpl enA cMNuc A kEnøgEdr P = MC.

TaMgcMNUl nig éføedIm)anbgðajkñúgRkahVic. cMNUlsrub esµInwg éfø KuNnwg brimaN³ P^* x q = 5duløar x 300 = 1500duløar. kñúgrUbPaBcMNUlsrub KWesµInwgbrievNRtIekaN P^*Aq^*0. enAplitpl q^*mFüméføedImsrub esµInwg 4>20duløar enAcMnuc B. Caelx vaesµInwgRbEvgénExScMENk q^*B. BIeRBaH mFüméføedImsrubesµInwg éføedImsrub Ecknwg brimaN. dUecñHeyIgGacTaj)anfa éføedImsrub esµInwg mFüméføedImsrub KuNnwg brimaN.

ATC =

TC = ATC x q

dUecñHéføedImsrub (TC) esµInwg 4>20duløarKuNnwg 300 = 1/260duløar. kMéresµInwgcMNUl srub (TR) dknwg éføedImsrub (TC) esµInwg 240duløar. shRKasrk)ankMérCaviC¢man.

shRKasEdlrk)ankMérCaviC¢mankñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøI ehIysgÇwmfanwgbnþy:agdUecñaH man eRKOgelIkTwkcitþedIm,IBRgIkTMhMRbtibtþikarkñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlEvg. kMérTaMgenaHpþl;eGayshRKas fµInUvkarelIkTwkcitþedIm,IcUl nigRbkYtRbECgkñúgTIpSar.

4- Gb,rmakarxatbg;

shRKasEdlminrkkMérCaviC¢man b¤minrYcxøÜn vaKWxatbg;ehIy. shRKasEdlrgeRKaHeday karxatbg; sßitenAkñúgBIrRbePT 1> shRKasEdldwgfa vaKYrEtbiTRbtibtþikareGay)anqab;rh½s ehIysuxcitþxatbg;EtéføedImefr nig 2> ehIyshRKasEdlKYrRbtibtþbnþkñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøI edIm,IGb,rmakmµkarxatbg;. cUrcaMfashRKasminGaccakecjBI]sSahkmµkñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøI. shRKasGacbiT b:uEnþvaminGacbM)at;ecaléføedImefredaykarcakecjBICMnYjeLIy. éføedImefrRtUv EtcMNajkñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøI eTaHCashRKasmineFVIGVIk¾eday.

shRKasrgeRKaHedaykarxatbg; seRmccitþ b¤minseRmccitþplitkñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøI KW edaysarEtKuNsm,tþi b¤KuNvibtþikñúgkarbnþdMeNIrkarplitkmµ. RbsinebIshRKasbiTTVar vaminman R)ak;cMNUl ehIyk¾KµanéføedImGefrEdr. RbsinebIshRKasbnþkarplit va)anR)ak;cMNUl nigéfø edImGefrekIteLIgpgEdr. eRBaHshRKasRtUvEtr:ab;r:géføedImGefr eTaHCabiT b¤minbiTk¾eday karseRmccitþedIm,IbnþKWGaRs½yfaetIcMNUlEdlTTYl)anBIRbtibtþikar vaRKb;RKan;sRmab; RKbdNþb; éføedIm Gefrb¤Gt;. kMérRbtibtþikar b¤cMNUlRbtibtþikarsuT§ esµInwgcMNUlsrub (TR) dkeGay srubéføedImGefr (TVC). CaTUeTA³

-RbsinebIcMNUlsrubeRcInCagéføedImGefrsrub kMérRbtibtþikarviC¢man ehIyvaGaceRbIR)as; edIm,ITb;Tl;éføedImefr nig kat;bnßykarxatbg;. kMérenHnwgGnuBaØateGayRkumh‘unbnþRbtibtþikar.

-RbsinebIcMNUlsrubticCagéføedImGefrsrub shRKasrgeRKaHedaykarxatbg; Edldak; bEnßmelIéføedImefr. kñúgkrNIenH shRKasGacbnßyCaGtibrmanUvkarxatbg;edaykarbiTTVar.

plitenAcMnucmYyEdlxatedIm,ITb;TléføedImefr³ cUremIlshRKasBisidælagrfynþ³ ]bmafa edaykarRbkYRbECg)anCMrujtMélFøak;dl;3duløar. cMNUlsrubrbs;shRKasFøak;mknUvRtwm 2400 duløarkñúg 1s)aþh_ ¬800Lan KuNnwg 3duløar¦. RbsinebIéføedImGefrenAEt1600duløar éføedImsrub esµInwg 3600duløar ¬1600duløar bUUknwg 2000duløaréføedImefr¦ Edlvax<s;CagcMNUlsrub. shRKasnwgrgkarxatbg;cMnYn 1200duløar.

kñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlEvgshRKasRbEhlCacg;cak;ecjBIrbr b:uEnþkñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøI va)anCab;KaMg ehIyvaRtUvEtseRmccitþfaetIRtUveFVIGVI.

karlagrfynþmanCMerIsBIr Rbtibtþikarbnþ b¤biT. RbsinebIbiT shRKasminmanéføedImGefr eT ehIyk¾KµancMNUlEdr karxatbg;rbs;vaesµInwgéføedImefrKW 2000duløar. RbsinebIvaseRmcfabnþ vanwgbegáItnUvkMérRbtibtþikar. cMNUlsrubmancMnYn 2400duløarvaRKb;RKan;sRmab;r:ab;rgéføedImGefr 1600duløar. karRbtibtþikar shRKasnwgTTYl)ankMérRbtibtþikarcMnYn 800duløarkñúg1s)aþh_ Edlva GaceRbIR)as;edIm,ITb;Tl;karcMNayeTAelIéføedImefr. edaykarRbtibtþikarshRKasGackat;bnßy karxatbg;rbs;va BI 2000duløarenA RtwmEt 1200duløar.

A Firm Will Operate If Total Revenue Covers Total Variable Cost

1,200

Total profit/loss (TR - TC)

800

Operating profit/loss (TR - TVC)

2,000

Profit/loss (TR - TC)

2,000
1,600
3,600

$

$

Fixed costs
Variable costs
Total costs

2,000
0
2,000

$

$

Fixed costs
Variable costs
Total costs

2,400

Total Revenue ($3 x 800)

Total Revenue (q = 0)

CASE 2: OPERATE AT PRICE = $3

CASE 1: SHUT DOWN

RkahVicxagelIbgðajBIshRKasrgeRKaHedaykarxatbg;. éføTIpSar P^* = 3>5 duløar. Rbsin ebIshRKasseRmccitþedIm,Iplit vanwgplitdl;cMnucEdléfølk;esµInwgéføedImbEnßm kñúgkrNIenH plitpl q^* = 225Ékta.

cMNUlsrubesµInwg 3>5duløar KuNnwg 225Ékta = 787>50duløar b¤kñúgctuekaN P^*Aq^*0. mFüméføedImsrubenAcMnuc q^* = 225Ékta KW 4>1duløar ehIyvaesµInwgRbEvg q^*B. éføedImsrubesµInwg mFüméføedImsrub KuNnwg 225Ékta KW 992>50duløar. eRBaHEtéføedImsrubFMCagcMNUlsrub naMeGayRkumh‘unxatcMnYn 135duløar bgðajenActuekaNB’NRkhm.

kMérRbtibtþikar cMNUlsrubdkeGayéføedImGefrsrub esµInwg 787>5duløar dkeGay 697>5duløar ¬éføedImGefresµInwgmFüméføedImGefr 3duløar KuNeGay q^* = 225Ékta¦ esµInwg 90duløar cMnucctuekaNB’NRbepH.

caMfamFüméføedImsrubesµInwgmFüméføedImefr bUkeGay mFüméføedImGefr. vamann½yfaRKb; kMriténplitpl mFüméføedImefr KWCaPaBxusKñarvagmFüméføedImsrub nigmFüméføedImGefr.

ATC = AFC + AVC

AFC = ATC – AVC = $4.1 - $3.1 = $1.00

dUecñH mFüméføedImsrubesµInwgRbEvg BE. eRBaHEtéføedImefrsrub esµInwgmFüméføedImefr 1duløar KuNnwg brimaNplitpl q^* = 225Ékta esµInwg 225 TaMgctuekaNRkhmnwgRbepH. dUecñHRbsinebIshRKasbiTTVar karxatbg;rbs;vaRtUvesµInwg 225duløar. edayRbtibtþikarshRKas TTYl)ankMérRbtibtþikaresIµnwgctuekaNB’NRbepH KW 90duløar EdlGackat;bnßyéføedImefrxøH ehIynaM eGaykarxatbg; mknUvRtwm 135duløar cMnucRtIekaNB’NRkhm.

dUcenHkrNIEdléfølk;enAEtFMCagmFüméføedImGefr shRKasenAEtGacdMeNIrkar)anedIm,I TTYl)ankMérRbtibtþikarCaCagbiTTVar.

biTTVaredIm,Ikat;Gb,brmakarxatbg;³ enAeBlEdlcMNUlRKb;RKan;sRmab;bMeBjéføedImGefr shRKasEdlxatbg;shRKasTTYl)anplRbeyaCn_ RbsinebIminbiTTVar eTaHCaenAkñúgkrNIdMeNIr karry³eBlxøIk¾eday.

]bmafaéføkñúgkarlagrfynþFøak;dl; 1>5duløar. karlagrfynþ800kñúg1s)aþh_ nwgpþl; cMNUlEt1200duløarb:ueNÑaH. CamYyéføedImGefrcMnYn 1600duløar kardMeNIrkarnwgrgkarxatbg;cMnYn 400duløar bEnßmelIéføedImefr 2000duløar. dUcenHkarxatbg;srubKW 2400duløar. Rkumh‘un GtibrimakmµR)ak;cMeNj b¤Gb,brmakarxatbg;nwgkat;bnßykarxatbg;rbs;xøÜnBI 2400duløar mkenARtwm 2000duløaredaykarbiTTVarkñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøI.

RKb;eBlEdléfølk; enAxageRkamsßitenAcMnucTabCageKbMputénExSekagmFüméføedImGefr cMNUl srubnwgTabCagsrubéføedImGefr ehIykMérRbtibtþikarnwgGviC¢man EdlCakarxatbg;enAeBldMeNIr kar. kñúgn½ym:üageTotéføsßinenAxageRkamcMnucTMgGs;EdlenAelIExSekagéføedImGefr shRKasnwg rgeRKaHedaykarxatbg;enAral;kMriténplitplEdlshRKasseRmcplit. kñúgkrNIenHekIteLIg shRKasnwgbBaÄb;plitkmµ nwgrgkarxatbg;RtwmEtéføedImefr. enHehIyCaehtuGVIEdlcMnucTab CageKénExSekagéføedImGefrRtUv)aneKehAfa cMnucbiTTVar (shut-down point). enAral;éfølk;Edl enAelIcMnucenH ExSekagéføedImbEnßmbgðajGMBIkMritGtibrimakmµkMérénplipl. éføEdlsßitenAeRkam cMnucenH plitpldMeNIrkarry³eBlxøIEdlRbesIrbMputKW esµIsUnü.

A Firm Will Shut Down If Total Revenue Is Less Than Total Variable Cost

2,400

Total profit/loss (TR - TC)

400

Operating profit/loss (TR - TVC)

2,000

Profit/loss (TR - TC):

2,000
1,600
3,600

$

$

Fixed costs
Variable costs
Total costs

2,000
0
2,000

$

$

Fixed costs
Variable costs
Total costs

1,200

Total revenue ($1.50 x 800)

Total Revenue (q = 0)

CASE 2: OPERATE AT PRICE = $1.50

CASE 1: SHUT DOWN

\LÚvenHeyIgGacehAExSekagéføedImbEnßmrbs;shRKasRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkitüfaCa ExS ekag pÁt;pÁg;kñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøI. shRKasRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkitü nwgplitdl;cMnucEdl P = MC . dUcEdreyIgeTIbEteXIj shRKasnwgbiTTVarenAeBlEdl P vaTabCagcMnucTabbMputénExS ekagmFüméføedImGefr. sUmcaMfaExSekagéføedImbEnßm RbsBVKñanwgExSekagmFüméføedImGefrRtg; cMnucTabbMputrbs;ExSekagmFüméføedImGefr. dUcenHeyIgGacniyay)anfa³

ExSekagpÁt;pÁg;kñúgdMeNIrkarry³eBlxøIénshRKasRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkitüKW CaEpñkénExS ekagéføedImbEnßmEdlsßitenAelIExSekagéføedImGefrrbs;va.

emeronTI7

rcnasm<½n§TIpSar

I- karRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkwt Perfect Competition

karRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkwtkMNt;edaycMnYnGñklk; nig GñkTijÉkraCüeRcIn EdleFVIkaredaHdUr plitpldUcKñaebHbiT. vatMNageGaysßankarN_d¾l¥¥xagRTWsþImYyEdlRtUv)aneKeRbIR)as;edIm,Ivay tMél ]bkrN_TIpSard¾éTeTot. manlkçxNÐcaM)ac; 5 EdlkMNt;criklkçN³énkarRbkYtRbECgeeday suRkwt.

lkçxNÐTaMgenaHrYmman³

-lkçxNÐTII1 KWfaRtUvmancMnYnGñkTij nig Gñklk;kñúgcMnYneRcIn. KµanGñkTijeTal b¤k¾Gñklk;eTal EdlmanGMNacRKb;RKan;edIm,IeFVIeGayb:HBal;dl;éfø.

- lkçxNÐTI2 KWfaGñkTij nig Gñklk; Tijlk;CamYyplitplRbePTdUcKñaebHbit (identical products) . EdlKµanPaBpÞúyKñakñúgKuNPaB vamincaM)ac;RtUvkareQµaHedIm (brand names) nigmincaM)ac;RtUvkarpSayBaniC¢kmµ. karlk;dUrrbs;Gñklk;mYy KWl¥dUcKñaeTAnwgTMnijrbs;Gñklk;d¾éT eTotEdr. TIpSarsRmab;GMbilmanlkçN³RsedogeTAnwglkçN³TaMgenH. BIeRBaHGMbilEtgEtrYmman Fatu KImI dUcKñaKW sUdüÚmkøér vaKµanehtuplsmehtuplNamYyEdleFVIeGaymankarcUlcitþGMbil m:akmYy CagGMbilmYym:akeToteT.

- lkçxNÐTI3 KWGñklk; nigGñkTijnimYy²eFVIskmµPaBedayÉkraCüPaB. TaMgenH vaFanafa Gñklk;TaMgLayRbkYtRbECgKñasRmab;luyrbs;GtifiCn nigEdlGñkTijTaMgLayRbECgKña edIm,ITTYl)anéføEdll¥RbesIrCageK. karRbkYtRbECgenH KWCakMlaMgmYyEdlrkSaeGayéføTab.

- lkçxNÐTI4 KWfaGñkTij nigGñklk;TaMgLaydwgc,as;GMBIplitpl nigtMél. GtifiCn EdlmanBt’manc,as;las;TijenAhagEdlmantMélefakCageK. Gñklk;Edldwgc,as;pÁÚrpÁg; tMélTabCageK énKUrRbECgrbs;KUrRbECgedIm,IeCosvagkar)at;bg;GtifiCn.

- lkçxNÐTI5 KWfaGñkTij nigGñklk;TaMgLaymanesrIPaBedIm,IcUlRbtibtþi b¤k¾ cakecjBICMnYj. esrIPaBenHeFVIeGayvaBi)aksRmab;Gñkplitkñúg]sSahkmµTaMgLay kñúgkarrkSa TIpSaredayxøÜneK. GñkplitRtUvEtrkSaéføEdlRbkYtRbECg ebImindUecñaHeTRkumh‘unfµIGaceFVIeGayCMnYj rbs;BYkeKbraC½yminxan.

¯ karRbkYtRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkwt nig Gtibrimakmµ

eRkamkarRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkwt Rkumh‘unnimYy²KWmanGMNacticNas;edIm,Iman \T§iBlelIéfø. dUecñHehIyshRKasemIleXIjtRmUvkarxusBITIpSard¾éTeToteXIj. kñúgTIpSarRbkYt RbECgedaysuRkwttRmUvkar nigkarpÁt;pÁg;kMNt;CatMéllMnwg. bnÞab;mkRkumh‘unnimYy²eRCIserIskMrit énTinñplEdlnwgeFVIeGaymankMérx<s;bMputenAkñúgéføenaH.

15.00

5.00

$25.00

Price

A Market

4.50

110

129

4.75

138

144

148

10.00

Additions to profit

Price = $15 = D = MR

B Inidvidual Firm

Subtraction from profit

Profits are Maximized where

MR = MC

$25.00

Revenue/

Cost

The equilibrium market price

TMnak;TMngrvagÉktþRkumh‘un nigshRKasTMagmUlenAeRkamkarRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkwt KWbgðajenAkñúgrUbxagelI. kñúgrUb A kMlaMgTIpSaréntRmUvkar nig pÁt;pÁg; begáIttMéllMnwgenARtg;éfø 15$ . dUcEdrkñúgrUbB éføenHERbkøayCaExSekagtRmUvkaredkmYyEdlCYbedayRkumh‘unRbkYtRbECgeday suRkwtnimYy². BIeRBaHRkumh‘unTTYl)an 15$ sRmab;ral;ÉktabEnßmEdlvaplitExSekagtRmUvkar KW dUcKña nwgExSekagcMNUlbEnßmEdr.

kñúgrUbPaB B EfmTaMgbgðaj Bt’man éføedIm nig cMNUl sRmab;Rkumh‘unmYy. Rkumh‘unenH )anTTYl 15$ sRmab;ral;ÉktanimYy²énplitplEdl)anlk; EdlenaHehIyCaehtuGVIEdléfødUcKña nig cMnUlbEnßm. enAeBlEdlRkumh‘unmYycg;eFVIeGaycMnUlrbs;xøÜnx<s;bMputvaeFVIdUcenHedayrkkMritén TinñplEdlesµI nigéføedImbEnßmrbs;vaCamYy nigcMnUlbEnßmrbs;va. ]TahrN_éføedImbEnßmrbs; Rkumh‘unsRmab;plitÉktaTI 110 énTinñplKW$4.5. BIeRBaHEtÉktaenHGacRtUv )anlk; kñúgTIpSaréfø$15 Rkumh‘unGaccMenj $10.5. enAeBlEdlRkumh‘undak;bBa©ÚlnUvkmµkrTI7 Tinñpl srubeLIgdl;129 Ékta nigéføedImbEnßmeLIgdl $4.7 dUecñH vark)ancMnUlbEnßmsRmab;Rkumh‘un.

kmµkrTI8 )anCYybegáInTinñplsrubdl;138Ékta. enHk¾)anpþl;R)ak;cMeNjEdreRBaH EtéføedIm bEnßmvaenATabCagcMnUlbEnßmBIkarlk;énplitplTaMgenH. eTaHCay:agNak¾edayeBl shRKasCYlkmµkrTI9 eBlenaHéføedImbEnßmesµInwgcMnUlbEnßm dUcenHenAcMnucenHshRKasKYrEt bBaÄb;karCYl Blkmµ nigrkSaplitkmµenARtwm 144Ékta. RbsinebIshRKasCYlkmµkrTI10bEnßm vanwgbegáItTinñplsrubdl;148Ékta eBlenaHcMenjsrubnwgcuHfyeRBaHEt $22.50 énéføedImbEnßm eRcInCag $15éncMnUlbEnßm.

brimaNénTinñplEdlpþl;nUvkMritR)ak;cMenjx<s;bMputRtUv)anrkeXIjenAeBlEdl éføedIm bEnßménplitplesµInigcMNUlbEnßmEdl)anmkBIkarlk; MC = MR. KWvaekIteLIgenAcMnuc 144 ÉktaénTinñpl. kMritd¾éTeToténTinñplRbEhlCaGacmancMnYndUcKñaénR)ak;cMeNj b:uEnþminmancMnuc NamYyEdlbegáIteRcIn CageT.

II- karRbkYtRbECgEbbm:UNUb:UlIsÞIk Monopolistic Competition

karRbkYtRbECgEbbm:UNUb:UlIsÞIk KWCarcnasm<½n§TIpSarmYyEdlmanral;lkçxNÐTaMgGs; énkarRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkwtüelIkElgEtPaBdUcKñaebHbiTénplitpl. edayeFVIeGayplitpl rbs;vamanlkçN³xusEbøkKñabnþicbnþÜc GñkRbkYtRbECg Monopolistic BüayamTak;Taj GtifiCn eGay)aneRcIn nigpþac;muxcMENktUcmYyénTIpSar.

kareFVIGviklkmµplitpl Product Differentiation

pÞúynwgkarRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkwtü karRbkYtRbECgEbb Monopolistic eRbIR)as; Gviklkmµplitpl PaBxusKñaBit b¤k¾RbDitrvagplitplRbkYtRbECgkñúg]sSahkmµdUcKña. plitpl PaKeRcInplitsBVéf¶enH BIm:akCaeRcInénplitplEs,keCIgGtþBlik rhUtdl;kuMBüÚT½r KWRtUveKeFVI Gviklkmµ. GviklkmµRbEhlCaral dl;TItaMgénhag karrcnahag \riyabTbg;R)ak; karbBa¢Ún plitpleGay karvicx©b; esva nig ktþad¾éTeTot.

eBlxøHPaBpÞúyKñarvagplitplKWBit. ]TahrN_ m:akxøHénEs,keCIgGtþBlik man)atBiess Edlmanxül;. xøHeTotmanvtßúFatuedImBiessedIm,Ikat;bnßyTMgn;. xøHeTotRtUv)aneKrcnaedIm,IeGay emIleTAxusEbøk ehIyTak;TajCagmun b¤k¾eFVIeLIgedayP¢ab;TMnak;TMngeTAnwgGtþBlikl,I².

karRbkYtRbECgedaymineRbIéfø Nonprice Competition

GñkRbkYtRbECg Monopolistic cg;eFVIeGayGtifiCndwgGMBIPaBxusKñaénplitpl. karRbkYt RbECgedaymineRbIéføeRbIR)as;karpSBVpSayBaNiC¢kmµeGayTeT b¤k¾yuT§nakarCMrujkarlk;d¾éTeTot edIm,IeFVIeGayGñkTijeCOfaplitplKWl¥Cagm:akepSgeTot ehIyEdlCaerOy²eRbIR)as;karRbkYt RbECgedayeRbIéfø. dUecñHehIyGñkRbkYtRbECg Monopolistic CaFmµtapSBVpSayBaNiC¢kmµ b¤k¾CMruj karlk;y:agxøaMgkøa edIm,IeFVI eGayplitplrbs;BYkeKemIleTAxusEbøkBIeK.

enHBnül;GMBIehtuGVI)anCa GñkpliténexaxUvb‘UycMNayeBleRcInelIkarpSBVpSayBaNiC¢kmµ nigkarCMrujkarlk;. RbsinebIGñklk;GaceFVIeGayplitplxusEbøkkñúgKMniténGñkTij shRKas RbEhlCa Gacdak;éføx<s;CagKURbECgrbs;xøÜn.

karRbkYtRbECgEbbm:UNUb:UlIsÞIk nig GtibrimakmµkMér

enAeRkamkarRbkYtRbECgEbbm:UNUb:UlIsÞIk CaFmµtaplitpllk;enAkñúgcenøaHéfød¾ceg¥ótmYy. TidæPaBm:UNUb:UlIsÞIk KWsMedAelIsmtßPaBrbs;Gñklk;edIm,IbegáInéfølk;kñúgcenøHéfød¾tUcceg¥ótenaH. cMeBaHTidæPaB RbkYtRbECgRbsinebIGñklk;begáIn b¤bnßyéføRKb;RKan; GtifiCnnwgbMePøcPaBxusKñatictYc ehIynigeFVIkar pøas;bþÚrm:ak.

critGtibrimakmµkMérénGñkRbkYtRbECg Monopolistic KWminxusKñaBIcriténRkumh‘und¾éTeToteT. Rkumh‘unplitbrimaNénTinñplenAeBlEdléføedImbEnßmesµInwgcMNUlbEnßm. RbsinebIRkumh‘uneFVI eGay GtifiCneCOfaplitpll¥CagvaGacKitéføx<s;Cag. RbsinebIRkumh‘unminGaceFVIeGayBYk eKeCOeTBYkeKmin GacKitéføelIs)aneT.

GñkRbkYtRbECg Monopolistic GaccUleTAkñúgTIpSargayRsYl. lT§PaBkñúgkar begáItnUvkMér rbs;Rkumh‘unfµI edayRkumh‘unnimYy²GacplitplitplmYyEdlxusEbøkEtbnþicbnþÜcBIplitplEdl manrYcenAkñúgTIpSar.

III- GUlIehÁab:UlI Oligopoly

GUlIehÁab:UlI KWrcnasm<½n§EdlkñúgenaHmanGñklk;d¾FM²BIrbIekþabkþab;TIpSar. plitplén GUlIehÁab:UlI RbEhlCamanPaBdUcKñaeTAnwg]sSahkmµplitLan. cMnYnBitR)akdénRkumh‘unkñúg ]sSahkmµKW mansar³sMxan;bnþicbnþÜcCaglT§PaBénRkumh‘uneTalmYyedIm,IeFVIeGay mankar ERbRbYlTinñpl karlk; nigtMél kñúg]sSahkmµTaMgmUl. BIeRBaHEtcriklkçN³TaMgenH GUlIehÁab:UlI KWbnþBIkarRbkYtRbECgedaysuRkwt CaCag BIkarRbkYtRbECgEbbm:UNUb:UlIsÞIk.

kñúgshrdæGaemrik TIpSarCaeRcInKWERbkøayCaGUlIehÁab:UlIrYcCaeRsceTAehIy ehIykan;EteRcIn eTot nigRtUvERbkøayEdr. Pepsi nig Coke )anekþabkþab;TIpSarePsC¢³KµanCatiRsvwg McDonal's Burger King nig Wendy's ekþabkþab;TIpSarGaharrh½s. ehIyk¾mansaCIvkmµFM²ekþabkþab;GaCIvkmµ ]sSahkmµd¾éTeTot dUcCa karehaHehIrkñúgRsuk rfynþ nig]sSahkmµTUrs½BÞkñúgcMgayq¶ay. GUlIehÁab:UlIk¾elceLIgenAkñúg InternetEdr . haglk;esovePA Internet )anekIteLIgenAelITMB½rrbs; Amazon.com, Barnesandnoble.com, nig Bordres.com KWGUlIehÁab:UlIkñúg]sSahkmµrbs;BYkeK.

criklkçN³BwgEp¥kKñaeTAvijeTAmk

BIeRBaHEtRkumh‘unGUlIehÁab:UlIKWFMsMebIm enAeBlEdlRkumh‘unmYyeFVI Rkumh‘und¾éTCaFmµtaeFVI tam. ]TahrN_RbsinebIRkumh‘unGakascrN_NamYyRbkasbBa©úHéføRkumh‘und¾éTeTotCaFmµtaeFVIkar pÁÚrpÁgtMél efakEdrbc©úb,nñd¾manbBaða. Rkumh‘unGUlIehÁab:UlIdwgfaRkumh‘und¾éTeTotkñúg]sSahkmµman \T§iBl nigGMNacd¾xøaMg. dUecñHehIyRkumh‘unTMngCaeFVICamYyKña.

eBlxøHcriklkçNBwgBak;GaRs½yKñabegáItTMrg;énkarXubXit Cakic©RBmeRBogpøÚvkar edIm,IkMNt; éfø b¤ebImindUecñaHeTRbRBwtþeLIgkñúglkçN³shkarKña. TMrg;énkarXubXitmYyKWkarkMNt;éføeday RBmeRBogKña edIm,Idak;éfømYyEdrdUcKña b¤k¾RsedogKñasRmab;plitplmYy. esÞIEtral;krNIéføTaMgenH KWx<s;CagéføEdlkMNt; edaykarRbkYtRbECg. Rkumh‘unRbEhlCaEfmTaMgRBmeRBogKña edIm,IEck TIpSardUecñH Rkumh‘unnimYy² KWFananUvkarlk;nUvkMritCak;lak;NamYy. BIeRBaHEtkarXubXitCaFmµta kMhit BaniC¢kmµvaKWRbqaMgnwgc,ab;.

criklkçN³kMNt;éfø

xN³EdlRkumh‘unGUlIehÁab:UlIGacbBa©úHéfødl;plitplvaRKb;eBlevla Rkumh‘unTaMgenaHdwgfa Rkumh‘und¾éTeTotTMngnwgeFVItam. eBlEdlRkumh‘unmYybBa©úHéføvaGacERbkøayCasRgÁaméfø b¤k¾kar kMNt;tMélmYyEdlnaMeTAdl;tMélefakminFmµtamYy.

karraykarN_xagelIBiBN’naGMBIsRgÁaméføénRkumh‘unGUlIehÁab:UlICaEbbEpn. KURbkYtRbECg BIrrbs; Amazon )anbBa©úHtMélTabdUcKñay:agqab;rh½s ehIyéføenaHKwvaefakeBkEdlKµanRkumh‘un Na)anTTYlnUvcMeNjEdl)anmkBIkarlk;efakenaH. sRgÁaméføénRkumh‘unGUlIehÁab:UlICaFmµtaKWxøI b:uEnþtwgEtg nwgesÞIEt EtgEtpþl;nUvéfømYyd¾efaksRmab;GtifiCn.

karbegáInéfø k¾RbfuyRbfanEdr RbsinebIRkumh‘unmindwgfaRkuh‘und¾éTeTotnwgeFVItameT. ebImin dUecñaHeT Rkumh‘uEdlmanéføx<s;Cagnwg)at;bg;karlk;. BIeRBaHEtkarKMramkMEhgF¶n;F¶rsRmab;R)ak; cMeNjenAeBlEdléføekIneLIg b¤fyfycuH GUlIehÁab:UlICaFmµtaeBjcitþnwgRbkYtRbECgedaymineRbI éføCag.

karRbkYtRbECgedaymineRbIéfø manKuNsm,tþikñúgkareFVIeGaymankarvi)akdl;KYRbECgedIm,I eqøIytbPøam². RbsinebIRkumh‘unGUlIehÁab:UlI rkeXIjmeFüa)aypSayBaniC¢kmµfµI b¤k¾meFüa)ayNa mYyEdleFVIeGayplitplkan;EtRbesIreLIg eBlenaHRkumh‘und¾éTeTotc,as;CaCYbkarBi)akkñúgkMLúg eBlenH. bnÞab;mkRkumh‘und¾éTeTot nwgeRbIR)as;eBlevlayUrCagedIm,IEsVgrkmeFüa)ayEdll¥ RbesIrCagmYykñúgkarpSayBaNiC¢kmµ rWk¾plitplmYyEdlmanrUbragTak;TajCag EdlRbesIrCag meFüa)aykat;bnßyéfø.

GUlIehÁab:UlI nigGtibrimakmµkMér

Rkumh‘unGUlIehÁab:UlI k¾dUcCaRkumh‘und¾éTEdr GtibrimakmµkMérrbs;vaenAeBlEdlvarkeXIjfa brimaNénTinñpl Edl éføedImbEnßmrbs;va esµInwgcMNUlbEnßmrbs;va. edayrkeXIjkMriténplitkmµ enH Rkumh‘unGUlIehÁab:UlI nwgkMNt;tMélEdlCab;lab;CamYykMriténkarlk;.

tMélénplitplseRmc KWTMngCax<s;CagkarRbkYtRbECgEbbm:UNUb:UlI nigx<s;Cagq¶ayBIkar RbkYtRbECgedaysuRkwt. RbsinebIRkumh‘unGUlIehÁab:UlIminXubXitKñaeT BYkeKTMngCaGPirkS nigkMr tv:acMeBaHkartMeLIgéførbs;KURbECgrbs;BYkeKNas;.

IV- m:UNUb:UlI

m:UNUb:UlI KWCarcnasm<½n§TIpSarEdlmanEtGñklk;EtmYyKt; kñúgplitplCak;lak;mYy. enAkñúg BiPBelakenHminsUvCamanRkumh‘unEdlbegáItm:UNUb:UlIeT.

mUlehtumYyEdrmanminsUvmaneRBaHfaRbeTskan;rbbesdækic©TIpSarminsUvniym m:UNUb:UlIeT ehIyEtBüayameFVIeGayvaxusc,ab;. mUlehtum:üageTot KWfabec©kviTüafµIEtgEt plitplitplfµIEdl RbkYtRbECgCamYyplitplm:UNUb:UlIEdlmanRsab;. ]TahrN_karbegáIteLIgenAm:asuInhVak; )an GnuBaØateGayRkumh‘unCMnYjepJIrsMbuRteGLicRtUnic EdlRbkYtRbECgCamYynwg esvakmµéRbsNIyrbs; shrdæGaemrik ehIy\LÚvenHGuIEmlkan;EtmanRbCaRbiyPaBCagm:asuInhVak;eTAeTot.

RbePTénm:UNUb:UlI

eBlxøHlkçN³énkarpþl;TMnij b¤esvaEdlefakeTAdl;sgÁmKWl¥RbesIrbMputedayeRbInUvRkumh‘un m:UNUb:UlI. m:UNUb:UlImanbIRbePT³

m:UNUb:UlIFmµta Natural Monopoly ³ CasßanPaBTIpSarEdléføedIménplitkmµRtUv)aneFVI kat;bnßyedaymanRkumh‘uneTalEtmYyEdlplitplitplenaH. m:UNUb:UlIFmµta Gacpþl;nUvesvamYy EdlefakCagkarRbkYtRbECgd¾éT. ]TahrN_ Rkumh‘unTUrs½BÞ BIr b¤eRcInRbkYtRbECgKñakñúgkarpþl;esva TUrs½BÞkñúgtMbn;EtmYynwgminsUvmankarsnSMsMécb:unµaneT eRBaHfaRkumh‘unnimYy²RtUvkarGg;EtnpÞal; nig RtUvkarExSbNþajpÞal;. Rkumh‘unsaFarN³Edlpþl;esvaTwk ePøIg cUleTAkñúgkrNIenH BIeRBaHfavanwg x¢Hx¢ayNas;RbsinebIeyIgeRbIR)as;bNþajTueyar nigExSePøIgeRcInBaseBjTIRkug. edIm,ICasvagbBaða enHrdæaPi)al)anpþl;dl;Rkumh‘unbMerIesvasaFarN³nUvsiT§iBiess edIm,IeFVICMnYjkñúgtMbn;NamYyeday KµankarRbkYtRbECg. Rkumh‘unk¾yl;RBmTTYlnUvkarkMNt;CaeRcInBIsMNak;rdæaPi)al.

yutþikmµsRmab;Rkumh‘unm:UNUb:UlIFmµta KWfaRkumh‘unFMGaceRbIR)as;buKÁlik sMPar³ nigeragcRk edayRbsiT§iPaB. TaMgenHvanaMeGayekItman esdækic©maRtdæan Economies of scale EdlCasßanPaB mYy EdléføedImCamFüménplitkmµFøak;cuHenAeBlEdlRkumh‘unkan;EtFMeTA.

eBlxøHCMnYjmYykøayCam:UNUb:UlIedaysarEtTItaMgrbs;va. haglk;fñaMmYyEdlRbtibtþikarkñúg PUmimYyEdltUceBkEdlminGacRTRTg;CMnYjenaH)anBIr b¤eRcIn. CMnYjenHkøayCa m:UNUb:UlIPUmisaRsþ Geographic monopoly Cam:UNUb:UlImYyEdlQrelImUldæanKµangñklk;d¾éTeTotkñúgPUmisaRsþenaH.

m:UNUb:UlIbec©kviTüa Technological monopoly KWCam:UNUb:UlIEdlQrelImUldæanPaBCam©as; b¤ k¾karRtYtRtaviFIsaRsþplit dMeNIrkar b¤k¾EpñkviTüasaRsþQanmuxd¾éTeTot. rdæaPi)alGacpþl;Ca)a:tg; CasiT§iBiessedIm,Iplit eRbIR)as; b¤lk; nUvral;karécñRbDitsMxan;²sRmab;kMLúgeBlmYy. karécñRbDit RKbGacdNþb;sRmab;ry³eBk 20qñaM eTaHCay:agNak¾eday)a:tg;sRmab;karrcnaplitplGac man ry³eBlxøICag bnÞab;BIBYkvaERbkøayCaRTBüsaFarN³EdlmanRbeyaCn_sRmab;TaMgGs;Kña. kargar sil,³ nigGkSrsaRsþ RtUv)ankarBaredayc,ab;rkSasiT§I (copyright) CasiT§iBiessénGñkniBn§ b¤k¾ sil,³kr edIm,Ie)aHBum<pSay lk; rWpliteLIgvijnUvkargarrbs;BYkeKkñúgmYyCIvit bUkrYmTaMg 50qñaM eRkay.

manRbePTmYyeToténm:UNUb:UlI KW m:UNUb:UlIrdæaPi)al Government monompoly Cam:UNUb:UlI mYyEdlrdæaPi)alCam©as; nigRbtibtþi. m:UNUb:UlIrdæaPi)alRtUv)anrkeXIjkñúgkMritCati rdæ nigkñúgkMrit tMbn;. kñúgkrNICaeRcInvaTak;TgeTAnwgplitpl rWesvakmµEdl]sSahkmµÉkCnminGacpþl;)an smrmü. manTIRkugCaeRcInkñúgRbeTsGaemrikmanm:UNUb:UlIEdlRtYtBinitükareRbIR)as;Twk rdæxøHRtYtRta eRKOgRsvwgedaytMrUveGaymanlk;Etkñúghagrbs;rdæb:ueNÑaH.

–—

Monday, April 4, 2016

éfø brimaN brimaN PaBelIs b¤ éfø nWg

tRmUvkarTIpSar nig PaByWtrbs;va

No comments:

Blog Archive

Labels